1. What achievements were the Greeks most known for? What were the Romans' most notable achievements?



Answer: The Greeks were especially known for valuing the power of the intellect and the strong and flexible human body--they appreciated, in other words, both body and mind.. Greeks are known artistically for their architecture, sculptures, and pottery.  The Romans were the great conquers of the ancient world and were especially known artistically for their architecture because they created so many important buildings, monuments, and civic structures.


2. What is humanism?  What is rationalism?



Answer: Humanism is a system of thought that focuses on the thoughts, capacities, needs, and expression of human beings.  It raises humans to a position of importance in the universe.  Rationalism is the idea that knowledge depends on reason rather than on the input from the senses.  As mentioned above, the Greeks believed in a balance between both the body and the mind and the value of the individual.  This last was a radical change from the cultures just preceding them.


3. What were two artistic styles combined in Greek art?



Answer: The two styles of art that the Greeks combined were naturalism and idealism.  So they wanted to create portraits of their gods and leaders that resembled them, but were more perfect.


4. What were the four periods of Greek art?



Answer: The four periods were Geometric, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic.


5. How did the Geometric Period get its name?



Answer: The Geometric period got its name from the fact that in most of the art of this time geometric patterns prevailed, especially on the pottery.  For an example of this kind of use of geometric look, note the Dipylon Vase (fig.13-1).


6. Compare and contrast the black figure pottery to the red figure pottery.



Answer: In black figure pottery there are black figures on a red clay background with incised details.  This kind of pottery was made in a three-stage firing process: (1) In the first firing all the clay and slip decoration is turned red.  (2) In the second firing everything is turned black; and (3) in the final firing the clay body of the vase is returned to red, leaving the decorative figures black.  Then the artist would carve into the black figures to create details.

The red figure pottery is the result of the reversal of the black figure process. This leaves the pot black and the figures red.  The artist can then take black slip and brush in (instead of carving in) details.  You can imagine that it is much easier to get more fluid detail into a figure or design if you are using a brush with liquid slip than if you are carving into clay.  Therefore, red figure pottery has a great deal more intricacy and complexity in its surface ornamentation than black figure pottery does.


7. Name and describe the characteristics of the three orders of Greek columns.

Answer: There are three orders of Greek columns: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.  The Doric is oldest order and thickest of the columns with a square, plain capital and a frieze divided into triglyphs.  Next is the Ionic order which has taller and thinner columns that have spirals on the capital and a continuous frieze.  Last, the Corinthian columns are quite slender with an ornate fluted shaft and capitals with an organic leaf-like design.  The Corinthian order was the one most
favored by the Romans but all these different types of columns can be seen in many of the official buildings all over the United States to the present day.


8. What are the Kouros figures?  Kore figures?  Describe their artistic conventions.



Answer: The Kouros (the word meaning youth) is a male statue (fig. 13-6) from the Archaic period and the Kore (fig.13-7) is the female form of this kind of statue.  These statues are characterized by stiff, static bodies, very stylized hair, and a faint smile in their facial expression known as the "archaic smile."  These statues were believed to be used as offerings to the gods.

Commentary: It is fascinating to compare this Kouros figure (fig 13-6) which is so stiff and looks like it has just walked out of a block of marble, with the undulating and emotional statue of the Hellenistic period, the Laocoon. Group (fig. 13-16).  This is a very dramatic visual example of how much had changed in the Greek attitude toward the human body and the art they made to reflect that change during the period of classical Greece.


9. What is another name for the Early Classical period of Greece? Why is this name descriptive of this period?



Answer: The other name for the Early Greek period is the Golden Age.  It is a very descriptive name for this time in Greek history and art because it reflects all the amazing cultural achievements, including great advances in art, that happened during this time period.


10. What is the most significant thing about Early Classical Greek sculpture? Give a specific example.



Answer: The most significant contribution to sculpture during the Early Classical Greek period was the release of the figure from the block of stone background that it was carved from.  For example, in the Discus Thrower (fig, 13-8) by Myron the body of the athlete is portrayed in an arc shape with his arms extended while still remaining firmly rooted in his lower torso.  This gives the statue a realistic excitement that combines both motion and solidity.  It is during this Early Classic Greek period that the prototypes for all future realistic figurative sculpture is established.


11. What is the canon of proportions?



Answer: A canon of proportions is a set of rules that an artist uses to create a human figure in sculpture or painting.  In the Classical Greek period, Polykeito's sculptures of the human form set up these canons for the Greeks.  However, Polykeito established this canon by not just copying nature but rather by trying to perfect it.  An example of this athletic perfection is his sculpture the Spear Thrower (fig. 13-11).  Remember, as stated before the Greeks not only were interested in realism but also in idealism.


12. Name and describe the Classical Greek temple dedicated to Athena.



Answer: The temple dedicated to Athena was the Parthenon (fig. 13-9). The Parthenon (meaning chamber of the virgin) is thought to represent the ideal Greek temple.  It consists of a single row of Doric columns creating two cellas in which a forty-foot statue of Athena was placed.  Although it looks deceivingly simple the temple is actually full of subtle architectural designs that enhance its beauty.  For example, there are very few true straight vertical or horizontal lines in the temple.  Even the columns lean slightly inward and the corner columns are thicker than all the rest.  These curved lines give the Parthenon a more natural and integrated look.  Your text makes the interesting comment that it would seem that the Greeks conceived of this architectural wonder as a single large sculptural form.


13. What is the S-curve?



Answer: The S-curve was a device in Classical Greek sculpture that was used to show how humans realistically distributes their weight when standing.  In the statue of Hermes and Dionysos (fig. 13-13) by Praxtiles you can see that Hermes moves his weight from his right leg to his left arm by resting on a tree.  This kind of attention to realistic detail is what made Classical Greek sculpture the model for future free-standing sculptures..


14. Why is Hellenistic art different from earlier Greek art?



Answer: Hellenistic art is different from earlier art because it is not only realistic, with some added idealism, but it is also very emotionally expressive and contains a lot of dramatic illusionistic effects.  This kind of art appealed more to the emotions and senses than to the rational mind.  This change can been seen in The Dying Gaul sculpture (fig 13-15).


15. What is the Sarcophagus from Cerveteri?



Answer: The Sarcophagus from Cerveteri (fig 13-18) is a terra cotta coffin from the Etruscan culture.  The sarcophagus shows a husband and wife in a realistic pose, reclining and enjoying a banquet, smiling and holding each other in an affectionate embrace.  This art work seems to reflect the relaxation and contentment the Etruscan culture valued.


16. What was the unique contribution of Roman sculpture to the art world?  Give a specific example.



Answer: The main contribution of the Romans to the art world is the use of realism.  Whereas the Greeks observed humans carefully and made sculptures that were realistic in the way they stood or showed the musculature of the body, the Greeks also wanted to create the ideal figure and face.  The Romans were more interested in actual lifelike (or death-like in the case of death masks) commemoration of people's exact appearances.  This was a big change in attitude and art work.  For example, look at The Bust of a Roman (fig 13-19) with all its wrinkles and bald head.  Nothing idealized here. 


17. Explain what the Pont du Gard was and how it worked?



Answer: The Pont du Gard (fig. 13-22) is an aqueduct and one of the amazing civic projects created by the Romans.  It has three levels of arches and is a total of 900 feet long. and 160 feet high.  The whole structure slopes downward so that it uses gravity to bring water from the source to the end of the aqueduct.  The Romans were way ahead of Frank Lloyd Wright when they designed this efficient and beautiful structure which definitely shows form and function working together.


18. Describe the construction of the Roman Coliseum.



Answer: Another stunning civic structure built by the Romans is the Coliseum built in 80 CE.  This building also had three levels with arches separated by columns.  An interesting design element of the building is that it uses all three of the Greek types of columns with the Doric (the heaviest) being on the bottom level, the Ionic (middle weight) on the intermediate level, and the Corinthian (lightest in visual weight) being on the top level.  Originally there were metal pins holding together the masonry bricks that made up the structure but over the years they have been removed and the metal used for other purposes.  It shows how successful the design of this huge building is: it is now being held together just by gravity.  This stadium was used for "sporting" events (like battles between humans and between humans and animals) and it could hold up to 50,00 spectators.


19. What is a basilica? What did it look like?



Answer: Roman basilicas were large public meeting halls.  They were rectangular in shape with a center isle called a nave, and a ceiling that used the groin vaults to create the large center expanse.  This type of building became the model for many future Christian churches, which you will be studying in the next chapter.