Aristotle on Persuasion

In the workplace as in other contexts in life, we often need or want to convince others of our point of view. The art of convincing others is known as persuasion and it has been around for a long time. According to Aristotle (4^th Century BCE), rhetoric is "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion." In fact, Aristotle wrote a whole treatise on the art of persuasion; it is entitled On Rhetoric and still serves as the cornerstone of classical rhetoric and the discussion of persuasion.

Aristotle identified three essential techniques (or arts) of persuasion: logos, ethos, and pathos. You can think of these techniques as comparable to the elements of the communication triangle because they represent the three points.

Logos is represented by the subject or word. Ethos is represented by the writer or speaker. Pathos is represented by the reader or listener.

Logical Appeals (Logos)

Appealing to logic simply means sound reasoning. Derived from the Greek word, logos, meaning "word," logical refers to the consistency of the message within itself. How Aristotle's logical appeal translates into Twenty-first century writing is via the development of a logical argument.

• A claim is stated clearly.
• The supporting evidence is sufficient and effective.
• The connection between the claims and evidence are reasonable.

If any one of the preceding is violated, then the reasoning is not sound. Sound reasoning is the technique of persuasion most associated with objectivity. Whereas ethos and pathos can engender a large degree of subjectivity, sound reasoning has a stronger association with objectivity. This is not to say subjectivity cannot be masqueraded as objectivity. It just means that appeals to logic carry more scientific value than the other two.

You can find a discussion of persuasion in Chapter 5 of Technical Communication; an example of "How Reasoning Works" on page 130.

Ethical Appeals (Ethos)

Ethos, the Greek word for "character" refers to the writer or speaker's credibility. How your audience perceives your character can greatly affect whether or not your argument will convince them.

• Ethos can be conveyed by the language you use and the tone of your message. Is your language understandable and open or dense and concealing? Do you talk to your readers or down to them? Is your tone relational or condescending?
• Ethos can be conveyed by the way you talk about other, especially opposing, points of view. Do you acknowledge the reasonableness or truthfulness of others' views? Or, do you belittle their arguments without really considering them?
• Ethos is also conveyed by your reputation. Are you an expert in the field? Do you have a record of truthfulness, fairness, and integrity?

How the audience perceives you will influence their reception of your argument. Their perceptions are formed both by their knowledge of you and their ongoing experience with you. You can help your reception by your audience, or in the least, reduce the potential negative effect of perceptions if you pay attention to how you convey your character.

Emotional Appeals (Pathos)

Pathos, the Greek word for "suffering" or "experience," appeals to the audience and is often interpreted as emotional appeal. The appeal, however, is more accurately an effort to elicit a reaction from the audience or to draw the audience to the writer or speaker's point of view.

When I think of pathos, I think of empathy. Sympathy connotes "feeling sorry for" whereas "empathy" connotes putting yourself in another person's situation. Aristotle's conception of this appeal is helping the readers or listeners put themselves in the place of another, to see what the other sees, to feel what the other feels. Unfortunately for many people, emotional appeal is more attuned to sympathy and appeal to pathos is misused to camouflage poor reasoning.

Emotional appeal is probably the most volatile and the most abused techniques. If you use an audience's preconceived notions about an issue or situation or people to unduly influence the audience's opinions, you are abusing the appeal.

How to Make Effective Use of the Three Appeals

1. Logos – Review the situation carefully, studying all sides before you come to a conclusion. When you make your arguments, state your claims clearly, provide sufficient evidence and sound line of reasoning.
2. Ethos – Build your reputation by being truthful, fair, and open to others' points of view. Use language that is inclusive and acknowledge the reasonableness of others' arguments. Don't dismiss other views just because they disagree with you.
3. Pathos – Helping others understand, or be empathetic with others is a positive use of pathos; taking advantage of someone's biased notions to enlist them in your cause is not.

A Final Note

Although discussed as individual elements here, the best arguments incorporate all three. It's important, however, to keep in mind that persuasion cannot rely solely on ethos or pathos. An argument without sound reasoning may cause people to act, but their actions are based on emotional reaction not on an understanding of the issues at hand.