Chapter 4. Revolutionary War

Table of Contents

Beginning the Journey

The bulk of the sources for this unit may be found in "The American Revolution" module, which contains a wealth of information on all aspects of the revolutionary era.

Several strategies can help users navigate the module. Scanning the "Introduction" and looking over the "Key Topics" will provide users with an excellent idea of what the module contains. (This strategy is especially helpful if users have a specific topic in mind.) Users can also get a good sense of how the Revolutionary War unfolded by utilizing the "Years" function. Virtually every entry in the module's timeline contains links to relevant documents and images. Finally, the "Regions" function allows users to search for events in particular states. Since so much of the Revolution was tied to specific locations, this sort of search can be extremely fruitful.

Other modules contain relevant sources as well, such as "The African-American Experience," "Women in America," and "The Constitution and Supreme Court." As users have seen in the "Beginning the Journey" sections of previous units, scanning the "Years" sections of these modules is an excellent way to begin locating sources. Scanning the modules' "Key Topics" is as well.

Activity 1
The American War for Independence was a long time in coming and resulted from growing colonial dissatisfaction with the way that England was running the colonies. One of the biggest colonial complaints was over England's tax policy, which after the mid-1760s placed an ever-increasing burden on the American colonies. (More on this subject may be found under "Taxation and Colonial Protests," "The Boston Massacre and the Regulator's Revolt," and "Continuing Unrest and the Boston Tea Party" in the "Key Topics" section of the module "The American Revolution.")

The colonists periodically lashed out at these British taxes through organized boycotts or other acts of defiance. Some acts did end up being repealed, but no amount of colonial complaining about specific acts could bring the English to address larger American complaints about self-government and equal treatment in England.

Exploring the English statements in defense of the various taxes can illuminate the ideas that dominated English thinking about the relationship between the mother country and the colonies. Examining American protest statements can shed light on the mindset of the American colonists in the 1760s and 1770s as they struggled between their desire to reach an accommodation with a mother country that they believed was treating them unfairly and their need to exert greater control over their own affairs.

Within "The American Revolution" module, locate the following documents:

• "Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved"
• "Patrick Henry's Resolves as Printed in the Maryland Gazette"
• "The Celebrated Speech of a Celebrated Commoner"
• "Excerpt of an Interest of Britain with Regard to Her Colonies"
• "Excerpt from the Regulations Made Lately Concerning the Colonies"
• "The Objections to the Taxation of Our American Colonies"
• "Pitt's Protest against the Stamp Act"

Each document can be located by clicking on "Contents," then "Documents," and then the appropriate opening letter for each document. Scroll down to the titles.

Use the documents to answer the following questions.

1. What arguments do the first two documents, which put forth the colonial position, advance in opposition to English taxation policy? Do any of these arguments relate to current American political principles?
2. What actions do the first two documents recommend to protest English actions? What were these proposals designed to accomplish? Were they likely to succeed?
3. The third, fourth, and fifth documents advance the English position in defense of taxation on the colonies. What arguments do they use? Do these arguments seem logical? Do they seem fair? Why or why not?
4. What do these three documents reveal about the way the English thought of the colonies? How could this mindset come into conflict with the way the colonists thought of themselves?
5. How do the last two documents compare to the previous three? What arguments do they advance in opposition to taxation of the colonies? Why do you think the authors take the position they do?

Activity 2
One of the most important things that the individual colonies had to deal with in the era of the American Revolution was learning to work cooperatively. Under English control, each colony had enjoyed some degree of self-government, but there was no tradition of the various colonies working together.

All of that changed after England pursued greater control over the colonies, however, as colonial leaders came to appreciate the strength that came with their numbers. Accordingly, the years before and during the Revolution witnessed unprecedented intercolonial cooperation to resist English control and then to secure independence. Exploring the different ways that the colonies worked together against the English helps to illustrate the first stirrings of American nationalism.

In "The American Revolution" module, locate the following sources that highlight some of the most important examples of early cooperation among the colonies:

• "Sons of Liberty Resolves" (one way to locate this document is to go to "Contents," then "Documents," then "S," then scroll down to the title)
• "Declaration of Rights (Resolutions of the Stamp Act Congress)" (this can be located by searching under the term "Stamp Act Congress" and choosing the first item on the list that appears)
• "Declaration of Colonial Rights and Grievances" (you can locate this document by going to "Contents," then "Authors," then "Continental Congress," then clicking on the title)
• "The Continental Association" (one way to get to this document is to go to "Contents," then "Regions," then "Pennsylvania," then scroll down to the title)

Use these documents, in the order listed above, to answer the following questions.

1. The first two documents discuss colonial protests to the Stamp Act. How do they call for cooperation among colonies? Why would cooperation have been important for the success of the measures planned to combat the act?
2. The third document lays out the colonists' list of complaints against English policy in a clear and united voice. What is significant about the "abuses" that are included here? What does the list of abuses suggest about how the colonists saw themselves by 1774?
3. The last document recounts the Continental Congress's adoption of the Continental Association, a plan of union that bound the colonies together in common action. What is significant about this document? What do its signatories agree to do? How will the plan's provisions be enforced? Was such a plan for enforcement likely to succeed? Why or why not?
4. The cooperation that these documents demonstrate is precisely the sort of development that the last two documents in Activity 1 warned against. Explain how this is so, and speculate about why the warnings in those two earlier documents went unheeded.
5. How do the documents demonstrate a progression of colonial cooperation to resist English taxation and other abuses of power? What is significant about this progression? What would be its end result?

Activity 3
By the mid-1770s, colonial displeasure with English policy had accelerated, and the language being used to protest London's policy was often inflammatory. Some colonists were even advocating separation.

In the spring of 1775, fighting erupted at Lexington and Concord, and some colonists seemed resigned to all-out war with England. Still, breaking with the mother country was not a universally accepted idea, and colonial leaders had to work hard to convince the public, and the delegates to the Continental Congress, to explicitly declare independence.

Within "The American Revolution" module, locate the following documents:

• "Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms" (this document may be located by going to "Index," then "C," then scrolling down to "Continental Congress"; the document has a link in the list that appears)
• "A Call for Independence by Thomas Paine" (this document may be found by going to "Contents," then "Authors," then "P," then choosing the title from the list that appears)
• "Speech on American Independence" (one way to locate this document is to go to "Contents," then "Regions," then "Pennsylvania," then scroll down to the title)
• "Declaration of Independence" (this can be located by going to "Contents," then "Documents," then "D," then the title)

Use the documents to answer the following questions.

1. After reading the first three documents in the order listed above, what similarities do you note? What differences? Do you note any progression in thinking?
2. How do the first three documents justify action against England? What crimes or abuses is England accused of?
3. How can these three documents be seen as propaganda pieces? To whom were they targeted? What were they designed to do? Speculate on their likely effectiveness.
4. Compare the Declaration of Independence with the first three documents. What similarities and differences do you note?
5. Historians have often maintained that the Declaration of Independence was written for foreign consumption rather than for the colonists. Assess this argument. What would such claims be based on? Why might such claims hold water? Where do you stand on this idea?

Activity 4
At the same time that the Continental Congress was debating the question of American independence, its members were also drafting a plan for the confederation of the individual states.

Uniting the colonies under a central government was important for a number of reasons. A central government, for example, was necessary to ensure financial stability, to apportion debt among the states, and to settle questions related to western expansion.

But setting on an acceptable plan proved difficult, and the last state did not ratify the resulting "Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union" until 1781. Examining the Articles of Confederation themselves, as well as the debates surrounding their adoption, illuminates the most salient issues facing the revolutionary generation.

Within the module "The Constitution and Supreme Court," go to "The Articles of Confederation" and "Notes of Debates on the Articles of Confederation." (The first may be located by going to "Contents," then "Documents," then "A." Click on the first title; the second may be selected from the list of related items that appears at the top of the first.)

Use the documents to answer the following questions

1. Compare the first three sections of "The Articles of Confederation." (These three sections are different drafts of the articles drafted over the space of a year or so.) How are these three drafts similar? How are they different?
2. What are the most important issues as laid out in these three drafts? Where does each come down on the questions of political representation for each state, westward expansion, and debts? Explain the positions of each draft on these questions. (Hint: pay attention to where the drafters are from.)
3. How do these drafts reflect the Americans' recent experiences with the government of George III in England? Use specifics from the drafts as evidence here.
4. How does the final version of the Articles of Confederation compare with the three drafts? On issues on which the drafts disagreed, which version does the final version square with?
5. What light can the second document shed on the way the Articles of Confederation turned out? What do the debates contained in that document reveal about the conduct of politics during the Revolution? About the concerns of the delegates to the Continental Congress?

Activity 5
Although Americans in the age of the Revolutionary War celebrated their history-making victory against England as something they accomplished on their own, it was clear at the time and is even clearer through the perspective of more than two centuries that the war could not have been won without outside assistance.

The most important source of foreign assistance was France, which had been aiding the colonists clandestinely from the very beginning of the war but had delayed official recognition and assistance until convinced that the colonists had a chance to win. Other nations provided aid as well, including Spain. In the end, then, the War for Independence became a much wider conflict than simply a quarrel between England and its colonies in North America.

An exploration of the foreign side of the American Revolution helps to place that conflict in the wider context of world history. It also illustrates how one nation's conflict with another can affect still a third.

Within the module "The American Revolution" go to "Contents," then "Years," then "1778." From the list of documents click on and read the following, in the order listed here: "Treaty of Alliance with France," "Treaty of Amity and Commerce," "France Recognizes American Independence," "Excerpt of Report of the Celebration of French-American Treaty," and "Letter to John Lamb on French Alliance, July 12, 1780."

Use the documents to answer the following questions.

1. What are the main provisions of the two treaties? How would the specific forms of assistance they outlined have helped the Americans? What would you identify as the most important provision of each treaty? Why?
2. Explain the reasons for the jubilation reported in the third and fourth documents. How important do the authors of these documents consider the alliance to be? Explain.
3. Compare the final document with the two that immediately precede it. Why does Samuel Shaw oppose the alliance? What might the origins of his sentiments be?
4. What reasons would France have had for signing the treaties of 1778 with the new United States? Be as complete in identifying all of France's possible motivations here.
5. Some historians have maintained that the alliance with France was one in a series of fortuitous events that owed their origins to events in Europe but that ended up aiding the Americans. Assess this argument, marshaling evidence from as many sources as you can.

Activity 6
The era of the American Revolution witnessed an intense debate about the status of black slaves in the United States.

Slavery, of course, had been a part of colonial life since the earliest settlements, and by the early eighteenth century it had become a crucial element of the plantation economy that developed in the southern colonies. (Some colonies, such as South Carolina, even had more black slaves than white residents.)

But not all Americans were convinced that slavery was compatible with the ideals of universal freedom that resonated throughout the Declaration of Independence and that seemingly formed the bedrock of U.S. political thinking. As a result, the era of the Revolution witnessed an intense debate about the place of slavery in American society.

Within "The African-American Experience," locate "Essay on Slavery" and "A Serious Address to the Rulers of America, on the Inconsistency of Their Conduct Regarding Slavery." (One way to locate these two sources is to go to "Contents," then "Years," then "1776." Both titles may be selected from the list of items for that year.)

Use the documents to answer the following questions.

1. What arguments against slavery are made in the two documents? Which argument do you think each author considers most important? Defend your answer with specific evidence from the documents.
2. The first document was written on the eve of the Revolution by a former slave; the second at the end of the Revolution by a Quaker. How might the timing of the two documents and the background of their authors color their contents? Does either of these factors affect the documents' importance or usefulness to historians today? If so, which one and why?
3. The author of the second document makes considerable use of all sorts of other documents to argue against slavery. Identify those sources and assess their usefulness for the author's argument.

Within the module "The American Revolution," go now to the document "A Dialogue Concerning the Slavery of Africans, 1776." (This may be accomplished by searching for the term "dialogue slavery." The document is the first item of the two that the search returns.)

Use this document, along with the previous two, to answer the following questions.

4. What similarities and differences do you note between the anti-slavery arguments of Samuel Hopkins and those of the authors of the two documents above? How might these similarities and differences be explained?
5. Despite the anti-slavery arguments outlined in these documents, slavery was not abolished after the Revolution. Why might this have been the case? What factors worked against the end of slavery at the time?

Activity 7
Women played various roles in the American Revolution, serving as spies, soldiers (often while masquerading as men), nurses, cooks, fundraisers, or managers of their husbands' properties while they were away. Most were Patriots, although some remained loyal to England. (More on these roles may be found under "The Role of Women in Building a New Nation" in the "Key Topics" section of the "Women in America" module.)

In providing new opportunities for women, the Revolution was thus no different than other American wars. In largely reverting to old patterns once the war was over, at least as far as women's participation is concerned, the Revolution was also similar to later wars.

Of the many sources within the module above that explore women's roles during the Revolution, go to the following:

• "Edenton Proclamation (1774)" and "Tory Cartoon on the Signing of the Edenton Proclamation" (these documents may be located by going to "Index," then "E," then clicking on the titles at either of the entries at which they appear)
• "Nancy Hart, Heroine of the Revolution" (one way to locate this image is to go to "Contents," then "Images," then "N," then scroll down to the title)
• "Lydia Darragh Conveys the News of General Howe's Movements to Elias Boudinot" (this document may be located by going to "Contents," then "Regions," then "Pennsylvania," then scroll down to the title)
• "Letter from Esther DeBerdt Reed to George Washington (1780)" and "Letter to George Washington from Esther DeBerdt Reed (1780)" (you may locate these documents by searching under the term "Esther Reed"; the documents are the first and fourth in the list the search returns; the first document also has an audio component)
• "Letter from Abigail Adams to John Adams, March 31, 1776," "Letter from Abigail Adams to John Adams, May 7, 1776," and "Letter from Abigail Adams to Mercy Otis Warren (1776)" (these three documents may be located by going to "Contents," then "Documents," then "L," then scrolling down to the three titles, which should be read in the order given; the first document also has an audio component)

Use these sources to answer the following questions.

1. The sources about the Edenton Proclamation explore women's political action during the era of the Revolution. How does the women's proposal compare with what men were doing at the same time to protest English actions? How does the Tory cartoon reflect contemporary sentiments, perhaps even those among men in America?
2. The second and third sources demonstrate several aspects of women's experiences during the Revolution. How do these sources demonstrate the changes that women experienced as a result of the Revolution? Be as specific as you can about all of the changes that these sources reveal, as well as how women adapted to them.
3. Assess the fundraising activities of Esther Reed as reflected in her letters to George Washington and the accompanying commentaries. Why did Reed likely take the positions she did on how the funds she had raised would be used? Why do you suppose she gave in to Washington?
4. How do Abigail Adams's letters to her husband John and to Mercy Otis Warren illustrate women's frustrations at their lack of power and political influence? (Recall that Warren often had to publish her political writings under a male when name when answering this question.)
5. Abigail's references to John's comments seem patronizing today. They were largely in keeping with the times, however. Collectively, how do the sources about women's roles illustrate both tradition and change? Be specific.

Activity 8
The Revolutionary War had a profound effect on Native Americans. Although many native societies tried to remain neutral during the war, that proved impossible due to the economic dislocations the conflict caused and the lure of rewards for aligning with one side or the other. (An extended discussion of this subject may be found in "The American Revolution" module under the Key Topic "Native Americans and the Revolutionary War.")

Most Native American groups that took sides in the war preferred far-away England to the close and ever-expanding colonies, a development that suited the manpower-short English just fine. The English were more than happy to accept Native American assistance and to reward that assistance with guns, food, and gifts. Because of their alliance with England during the war, many Native American societies found the American victory a bitter pill to swallow.

Within the module above, go to "Letters of an American Farmer" and "The Wyoming Massacre." (One way to locate these two sources is to go to "Contents," then "Regions," then "Pennsylvania," then scroll down to the two titles.)

Use the sources to answer the following questions.

1. Collectively what sorts of Native American depredations do these sources describe? What role do they ascribe to the British?
2. What likely brought on the events described in these sources? How are the events outlined here merely the culmination of the long-term relationship between Native Americans and frontiersmen?

Within the same module, now go to "Speech of Captain Brant to Lord George Germain." (One way to locate this document is to go to "Contents," then "Authors," then "B," then scroll down to "Brant, Joseph" and click on the title.)

Use this document, in conjunction with the sources above, to answer the following questions.

3. What complaints does Brant outline against the colonists--and by extension the English who failed to control them? Cite specifics from the document to answer this question.
4. Despite these complaints about England's failure to control the colonists, Brant is still willing to work with the English during the Revolution. Why would this have been the case? How does Brant's speech help to explain the events outlined in the first two sources?
5. How should historians assess Brant's speech as a historical source? Be specific.

Activity 9
Not all colonists supported the Revolution. In fact, some estimates have detected an even three-way split in the population of the colonies between those who advocated independence, those who remained loyal to England, and those who did not care what happened. The one-third of the population that remained loyal to England, called "Loyalists" at the time, suffered greatly for their choice during and after the war.

Several sources about their experiences are contained in "The American Revolution" module of the American Journey Online. Examining these sources helps to explain why some people did not jump on the bandwagon for independence. It also provides a window into the mindset of Patriot leaders who seemed determined to tolerate no opposition to independence and no obstacle to victory.

Within that module, go to "Loyalists in the South: A Diary of Lieutenant Anthony Allaire," "Account of the Treatment of Loyalists," and "British Army's Appeal for Recruiting Loyalist Troops." (These sources may be located by going to "Index," then "L," then scroll down to "Loyalists" and click on the titles from the list.)

Use the sources to answer the following questions.

1. What do the extracts from Anthony Allaire's diary suggest about the strength of Loyalist support in the Carolinas? How do the extracts reveal this strength? Explain.
2. The second source (John Hamilton's letter) suggests more than personal reasons why America cannot be granted its independence. What do the arguments mounted here say about how Hamilton saw England as a nation? About what he thought made a nation great?
3. To what ideas does the third source (the British recruiting poster) appeal? What arguments does it make in its effort to drum up enlistment in the English army? What might make such enlistment attractive to Loyalists, especially those of lesser means?
4. English officials clearly did not expect at the beginning of the war that they would have to seek army recruits from America? What does the fact that they had to do so say about changes in the way London viewed the conflict? About the likelihood of English victory? Explain.
5. What do these documents about Loyalist feeling during the Revolution suggest about cohesion and unity within the colonies? How does the presence of Loyalist sentiment point to possible problems for the new nation in the future?

Activity 10
The last battle of the Revolution was fought at Yorktown, New York, where Lord Charles Cornwallis surrendered to George Washington in October 1781. Exhausted after the long (and ultimately futile) war to subdue the Americans and nearly bankrupt from its cost, England had had enough. America would be granted its independence.

The negotiations that led to the final settlement went on for months, and the final Treaty of Paris was signed in September 1783. Its terms were more than generous to the new United States and occasioned widespread jubilation up and down the country.

Within "The American Revolution" module, locate "The Paris Peace Treaty (Peace Treaty of 1783)," "Explaining the Treaty of Paris by Adams, Franklin, Jay, and Laurens, 1782," and "Britannia Stripped of Her Colonies." (One way to locate these sources is to go to "Contents," then "Years," then "1783." The three titles may be selected from the list that appears.)

Use the sources to answer the following questions.

1. What advantages does the Treaty of Paris contain for the United States. How would these provisions benefit the new nation? How might they create problems? Be specific.
2. What, if any, obligations does the United States have under the terms of the treaty? How would these terms have been important to England?
3. How does the second document add to your understanding of the treaty? What does it tell you about the mindset of the negotiators on both sides?
4. Using what you now know about the Treaty of Paris from studying the first two documents, how do you assess the third source ("Britannia Stripped of Her Colonies")? Does the cartoon reflect the true situation at the time? Why or why not?
5. After considering these sources, reflect upon the idea introduced in Activity 5 above about the role that Europe's distress played in America's success. How did England's European concerns affect the war in America? What did the United States gain as a result?