Chapter 6. An Expanding Nation (1800-1850)

Table of Contents

Beginning the Journey
Material for this unit may be found in a wide variety of modules within the American Journey Online database, a fact that testifies to the great variety of things that were going on in the country during these first five decades of the nineteenth century.

Users will find relevant sources for this period in: "Westward Expansion," "The Constitution and Supreme Court," "Women in America," "The Immigrant Experience," "The Native American Experience," "The African-American Experience," "The Hispanic-American Experience," and "The Civil War."

Due to the many different issues that made themselves known during these decades, users are advised to consult the "Key Topics" for these modules early in their search for materials. Those topical discussions provide great introductions to many of the main issues of interest; they also contain links to key sources and images.

Searching the various modules by "Regions" is also a good strategy for this unit, since it was during this period that the nation split between North and South in the run up to the Civil War. Users looking for information on sectional differences can easily locate it through a "Regions" search.

Users who have some idea of what topics they are searching for should also make use of the "Index" functions for the modules. Utilizing the "Index" function successfully sometimes necessitates creativity or trial and error methods, but the results are often well worth the effort.

Activity 1
Although the United States gained extensive new territories as a result of the Paris Peace Treaty of 1763, the desire for even more land remained very much alive during the years after independence.

In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson, who succeeded John Adams as the nation's third president, nearly doubled the size of the nation by purchasing more than eight hundred thousand acres of land from France. It was Jefferson's hope that the Louisiana Purchase would provide opportunities for American economic prosperity and protect the nation from internal divisions. (The "Westward Expansion" module discusses the Louisiana Purchase under the Key Topic "The Louisiana Purchase and Its Impact.")

Despite the good that would clearly come from the Louisiana Purchase, problems surrounded it. For one thing, the Constitution contained no provision authorizing such a purchase. For another, the purchase angered Jefferson's Federalist opponents, who saw the move as politically motivated.

Within the above module, go to "The Treaty for the Cession of Louisiana." (One way to locate this document is to search under "Louisiana Cession Treaty." The document is the only item the search returns.)

Use the document to answer the following questions.

1. How does the treaty define the territory being ceded by France to the United States? What boundaries does it set? How specific are they? Might the wording of the treaty on this issue cause dispute in the future? Why or why not?
2. Because the Louisiana Territory was not vacant, the treaty makes provision for the incorporation of its residents into the United States. Would such incorporation have generated objections from those people living in Louisiana at the time? Why or why not?
3. Napoleon was willing to sell Louisiana for reasons that had little to do with North America. How does this fact relate to the idea introduced in the unit on "The Revolutionary War" about Europe's distress providing an opportunity for American success? How, in other words, did events in Europe help the United States to secure Louisiana?

Not long after the Louisiana Purchase, Jefferson commissioned an extensive exploration of its lands. Within the same module, go now to:

• "Instructions to Meriwether Lewis by Thomas Jefferson"
• "Excerpt from The Journals of the Expedition under the Command of Captains Lewis and Clark"
• "A Map of Lewis and Clark's Trek"
• "Louisiana Tanager, Clark's Crow, Lewis's Woodpecker."

These two documents and two images may be located by going to "Index," then "L," then scroll down to "Lewis, Meriwether" and click on the four titles.

Use the sources, in the order listed above, to answer the following questions.

4. What tasks does Jefferson assign to Lewis? What do these tasks suggest about how Jefferson hoped to use the new territory? What specifically does Jefferson hope to learn about the Native American societies of the territory? To what end?
5. What do the last three sources tell you about whether Lewis and his team fulfilled their responsibilities or not? What does the expedition appear to have accomplished, based upon these sources? Draw upon the sources for specifics in formulating your answer.

Activity 2
The first decade of the nineteenth century witnessed the setting of several precedents with regard to the Supreme Court's actions and powers that have remained parts of American legal tradition for two centuries.

Introduced during this period, for example, was the concept of judicial review and the attendant idea that the Supreme Court could declare acts of Congress unconstitutional. Also codified during this period was the balance of power between the Court and the legislative branch, particularly the Court's immunity from political attacks by Congress.

The fact that such precedents had to be set was not surprising, given the new nature of the U.S. legal system at the time. The fact that several of these early precedents came about because of partisan squabbling, however, was surprising, given the Founding Fathers' initial hope that the nation would not dissolve into wrangling factions.

Within the module "The Constitution and Supreme Court," go to "Marbury v. Madison" and "Chase's Response to the Impeachment Charges." (Each document may be located by going to "Contents," then "Documents," then the first letter of each title, then scroll down to the appropriate document.)

Use the documents to answer the following questions.

1. The background to the Marbury v. Madison case was the refusal of the presidential administration of Thomas Jefferson to honor judicial appointments made by the outgoing Adams administration. (The new administration claimed that the appointees, as members of the opposition, would thwart the will of the majority that had just elected Jefferson.) How are the issues of the case laid out in the first document? How does Madison's decision respond to the issues?
2. Legal scholars have considered the most important phrase in the Marbury v. Madison decision to be the statement: "It is emphatically the duty of the Judicial Department to say what the law is." What exactly does this phrase mean? What powers does it confer upon the Supreme Court vis-à-vis Congress?
3. Samuel Chase was impeached by the House of Representatives for expressing political opinions from the bench that ran contrary to those of the party in power at the time. How does he defend himself in the second document? What arguments does he mount to justify his words, and to denounce at the same time the proceedings against him?
4. How logical is the case Chase makes in his own defense? What does his case suggest about the role that party politics could play in the American judicial system? Why do you believe that the Senate (which was controlled by his political opponents) refused to convict him? What does his acquittal suggest about how the Senate at the time viewed the intrusion of politics into the affairs of the Supreme Court? About the rise of parties generally?
5. Taking these two cases together, what do they say about the Supreme Court's efforts to remain above partisan politics? About the evolving balance between the powers of the executive and the judiciary? Speculate on the possible consequences of allowing party politics to influence the judiciary.

Activity 3
President Andrew Jackson set the wheels in motion for another constitutional crisis in 1832 when he refused to recharter the national bank. (Recall the debate on the original bank addressed in Activity 8 of the previous unit.)

To explore this episode, which has been dubbed the "Bank War," within the module "The Constitution and Supreme Court," go to "Jackson Vetoes the Second Bank of the United States" and "Jackson Slaying the Many-Headed Monster." (The first source may be located by going to "Contents," then "Authors," then "J," then "Jackson, Andrew," then click on the title. The second may be selected from the list of related items that appears at the top of the first.)

Use the sources to answer the following questions.

1. What complaints does Jackson lodge against the bank? Where do these complaints originate?
2. What justifications does Jackson make for his declaration that the bank is unconstitutional? Do these justifications hold up to close scrutiny?
3. The most notable feature of Jackson's veto message is its claim that each public official, including the president, may interpret the Constitution differently. Why would such a claim cause an uproar? What does it suggest about the separation of powers? About the position of the Supreme Court vis-à-vis the executive branch?
4. How does the cartoon interpret Jackson's war against the bank? With what segments of society would this interpretation have resonated?
5. How does the Bank War illustrate the growing pangs that were still plaguing the U.S. government more than three decades after ratification of the Constitution? Be specific, especially about the issues involved.

Activity 4
Throughout the 1830s and 1840s, the United States served as a magnet for European immigrants seeking greater economic opportunity. Millions of disaffected Germans and Irish immigrated to the United States during those decades, and most settled in urban areas and took jobs in factories.

Because a great majority of these immigrants were Catholics, they faced discrimination in employment, housing, and other areas as a result of mounting anti-foreign and anti-Catholic sentiment.

Exploring these early manifestations of American nativism provides a window into the cracks that developed early on in the supposed American melting pot, belying claims that people of all sorts mixed easily in American society.

Within the module "The Immigrant Experience," go to:

• "Imminent Dangers due to Foreign Immigration" (one way to locate this document is to go to "Contents," then "Years," then "1835," then click on the title)
• "The Truth Unveiled" (you may locate this document by going to "Contents," then "Documents," then "T," then scroll down to the title)
• "Awful Disclosures of the Hotel Dieu Nunnery" (this document may be located by going to "Contents," then "Authors," then "M," then "Monk, Maria," then click on the title).

Use these sources to answer the following questions.

1. Before explaining in the first document what he sees as the cause of America's problems during the 1830s, Morse dismisses some explanations offered by others. What are these explanations, and why does Morse downplay their importance? Is Morse right, or is he too quick to write these explanations off? Be specific and marshal evidence from the document to back up your answer.
2. Which immigrants does Morse find most dangerous to America? What doe he assert these immigrants plan to do to the United States? How does he claim they will accomplish their plot? What can the United States do to protect itself?
3. Compare the tone of the second document with Morse's. What differences do you find? What similarities? The author of the second document places the blame for the events he describes on the shoulders of nativists. Why? What evidence does he marshal to discredit their crusade? Is his evidence credible?
4. How does the third document fit with the other two? Note both similarities and differences. Which of the two previous documents does it agree with? How is this third document a piece of propaganda? What effect would it likely have had on readers at the time?
5. What do these sources collectively tell historians about the cohesion of American society during the first half of the nineteenth century? About the presence of an identifiable American "identity" during this period? About the difficulties of creating such an identity in a multiethnic society?

Activity 5
The U.S. economy became increasingly industrialized during the first half of the nineteenth century. Among the earliest industries to mechanize and adopt the factory system was textile production.

The textile operations at Lowell, Massachusetts, besides pioneering the consolidation of all facets of production under one giant roof, were also noteworthy for employing large numbers of young female workers, thousands of whom flocked to the mills in search of relatively good paying jobs.

To protect the women from the dangers of the larger world, the company implemented the "Lowell system," which regimented virtually every aspect of the workers' lives. The Lowell system flourished during good economic times. But when an economic downturn necessitated wage cuts in 1834, grumbling among workers began. Discontent worsened during the 1840s; by 1850 the Lowell system was dead. (To read generally about these developments, go to the Key Topic "The First Women Factory Workers" in the module "Women in America.")

Within that module, go to "Contents," then "Authors," then P," then "Paul, Mary S." Read the four letters, jumping from the first to the third and then back to the second. Finish with the fourth. (This ensures that you read the letters in chronological order.)

Use the documents to answer the following questions.

1. How do Mary Paul's views about work at the Lowell mills change over the course of her four letters to her father? What emotions does she express over time?
2. What changes in working conditions and rules are evident over the progression of these four letters? Does Mary Paul believe that the altered working conditions and terms of employment for the workers are justified? Utilize specific examples from her letters to answer these questions.

Within the same module, go now to the images "Power Looms: One Girl Attends Four" and "Regulations To Be Observed By All Persons Employed By The Proprietors of Tremont Mills" and the document "Tract Attacking Lowell Textile Mills (1844)." (All three sources may be located by going to "Index," then "F," then "Factories and factory work," then select their titles from the list.)

Use these sources, in conjunction with the documents above, to answer the following questions.

3. How do the two images reinforce Mary Paul's letters? Do they add any additional details to her story? Do they help to bring her letters to life? Is it true in these cases that a picture is worth a thousand words? Why or why not?
4. Compare the document above to Mary Paul's letters. What similarities and differences do you note? What tactics does the "Tract" employ to describe the shortcomings and abuses of the Lowell system? Are these tactics effective? Reinforce your answer with specifics from the document.
5. Collectively, what do these sources about the Lowell system tell historians and other scholars about the place of women in early-to-mid-nineteenth-century society? What assumptions lay behind the Lowell system? How did those assumptions affect treatment of women at the time?

Activity 6
U.S. policy toward Native Americans gradually hardened over the course of the nineteenth century. Dissatisfied with the almost continuous conflict that characterized relations with native societies throughout the country and the apparent failure of assimilation, the federal government came to adopt a policy of removal instead.

Native American removal was undertaken with a vengeance during the administration of Andrew Jackson. (An extended discussion of this episode in U.S. history may be found in the module "The Native American Experience" under the Key Topic "Removal.")

Within that module, go to:

• "First Annual Message to Congress"
• "Indian Removal Act of 1830"
• "Seventh Annual Message to Congress"
• "Speech on Indian Removal."

One way to locate these documents is to go to "Contents," then "Regions," then "Southeast." Each document may be accessed by title.

Use the documents to answer the following questions.

1. In the first document, Jackson calls for voluntary Indian migration west of the Mississippi. Why does he believe Native Americans would accept such a move? What would they get out of it? How does the audio that accompanies this document question Jackson's claims? Do the concerns expressed in the audio component seem warranted? How does the Indian Removal Act build on the first document? What specifically does it mandate?
2. What claims does Jackson make in the third document? Are they justified? How does this document build on the previous two? What assumptions do all three of these documents share?
3. What arguments does Senator Theodore Frelinghuysen make in opposition to the Indian Removal Bill? How are his ideas representative of northern sentiment? How might Jackson's pronouncements be representative of southern thinking?

Passage of the Indian Removal Act did not immediately accomplish the goal of removal, and it was not until 1838 that the first migrations began. Within the same module, go now to "Birthday Story of Captain John G. Burnett" and "Trail of Tears." (These sources may be located by going to "Contents," then "Years," then "1838," then click on the titles.)

Use these sources, and those above, to answer the following questions.

4. Captain Burnett's poignant reminiscences seem to fly in the face of the claims made by Jackson in the documents above. Detail the differences in the way Burnett describes the Cherokee and the way Jackson portrays them. Burnett intimates that the presence of gold in Cherokee territory sealed their fate. Do you think this could have been the case? Why or why not?
5. How does the image compare with Burnett's account? Note both similarities and differences.

Activity 7
The antebellum period in American history (the period roughly from 1820 to the start of the Civil War), witnessed a steady rise in anti-slavery sentiment. By the early nineteenth century all of the northern states had outlawed slavery, which meant that it had become a uniquely southern institution. Not content to merely outlaw slavery where they lived, though, abolitionists in the North came increasingly to call for its complete destruction.

Studying the rise of abolitionist sentiment in the United State during this period helps to explain the increasing bifurcation in the country, the way it was becoming split into two societies, one free and opposed to slavery and another committed to defending slavery at all costs.

An extended discussion of the debate over slavery may be found in the module "The African-American Experience" under the Key Topic "The Debate over Slavery in America." Within that module, go to the following sources:

• "Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World" (one way to locate this document is to go to "Contents," then "Documents," then "A," then scroll down to the title)
• "A Short Catechism: Adapted to All Parts of the United States, by William Lloyd Garrison" (locating this document may be accomplished by going to "Contents," then "Authors," then "G," then "Garrison, William Lloyd," then clicking on the title)
• "An Address to the Slaves of the United States of America, by Henry Highland Garnet" (this document may be accessed from the list of related items that appears at the top of the immediately preceding document).

Use the documents to answer the following questions.

1. What arguments does Walker advance to condemn slavery? How does his argument compare with what William Lloyd Garrison argues in the second document? What does each of these authors call for in the way of action to bring about the end of slavery? How likely were such strategies to succeed?
2. Compare the arguments of Henry Highland Garnet in the third document with those advanced in the other two sources. What similarities and differences do you note between Garnet's arguments and those of Walker and Garrison? Which position is Garnet closer to? Support your answer with specifics from the documents.
3. How do the different strategies for eliminating slavery that manifest themselves in these three documents illustrate the different ways abolitionists conceived of the legitimacy of the government at the time? The different religious orientations they might have held? Make specific references to the documents when answering these questions.
4. Which of the strategies put forth in these documents would have been more frightening to nineteenth-century Americans? Why? How might either of these strategies have intensified support for slavery in the south? Why?

Women were also involved in the abolitionist crusade, despite the fact that they were not able to vote and prohibited in some places from speaking in public. Within the module "Women in America," go to "Appeal to the Christian Women of the South," by Angelina Grimke. (One way to locate this document is by going to "Index," then "G," then the author's name, then the title.)

Use this document, in conjunction with the earlier ones, to answer the following question.

5. How is Grimke's appeal against slavery similar to and different from those contained in the documents above? What accounts for these similarities--and especially for the differences?

Activity 8
As Angelina Grimke's involvement in the abolitionist movement suggests, women in the United States during the nineteenth century did not remain silent when it came to issues that were important to them. (Recall the agitation by women workers at Lowell discussed in Activity 5.) But their overall lack of political power posed problems to getting their message heard.

To remove barriers to their political and social involvement with the life of the nation, a women's rights movement developed during the 1840s calling for suffrage and equal rights for women in education and employment. Although this movement did not immediately succeed, it paved the way for later rights struggles, such as the successful campaign for suffrage during the early part of the twentieth century.

Within the module "Women in America," go to:

• "The General Association of Massachusetts (Orthodox) to the Churches Under Their Care"
• "Excerpt from Letters on the Equality of the Sexes"
• "Declaration of Rights and Sentiments."

These documents may be located by going to "Index," then "S," then "Seneca Falls Convention." Each title may be accessed individually from the list.

Use the documents to answer the following questions.

1. Read and study the first two documents. How does the first lay the groundwork for the second? What are the main arguments laid out in each? Which makes more sense? Why?
2. Outline the rights and grievances contained in the third document. How had the complaints enumerated in the document come to exist? Who was to blame?
3. The "Declaration of Rights and Grievances" was revolutionary for its time. Why would that have been the case? Why might women themselves have had a hard time accepting and supporting the document?

Not surprisingly, the Seneca Falls Convention received extensive press coverage. Within the same module, go now to:

• "Editorial on Seneca Falls Convention from the Lowell (MA) Courier, 1848"
• "The Women of Philadelphia, Editorial on Seneca Falls Convention in the Public Ledger and Daily Transcript, 1848"
• "Insurrection Among the Women, Editorial on Seneca Falls Convention from the Worcester (MA) Telegraph, 1848"
• "Editorial of The North Star."

These documents may be accessed in the same manner described above.

Use these sources, in conjunction with the ones above, to answer the following questions.

4. What unites the first three sources in this second group? How do they describe the Seneca Falls Convention? How are their sentiments representative of prevailing attitudes? How do they compare with those expressed in the first source above?
5. What sets the last source, written by Frederick Douglass, apart from the others in this group? Why would it have made sense for him to write as he did on the Seneca Falls Convention? What does his editorial suggest about the connections between the abolitionist movement and the early campaign for women's rights? Why would such a relationship have been logical?

Activity 9
Most American territorial expansion came at the expense of territory once held by England or France, but some lands eventually incorporated into the United States were former Spanish territories.

Some of the formerly Spanish lands, such as Florida, came directly from Spain. Others were acquired from Mexico, which along with the other components of New Spain (Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua) attained independence in 1821.

Exploring American successes in adding these former Spanish holdings into the republic illustrates the U.S. determination to brook no obstacle to the national dream of expansion throughout the North American continent. It also reminds users that the Spanish presence in the New World did not end with the initial wave of exploration in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

Material in two different modules can help users with these issues. Within "The Hispanic-American Experience," go to "Adams-Onís Treaty." (This document may be located by going to "Contents," then "Regions," then "Florida," then click on the document title.) Within "Westward Expansion," go to "Annexation by John Louis O'Sullivan," "Editorials Promote War with Mexico and Challenge Britain," "President's Message Calling for War with Mexico," and "Treaty of Guadelupe Hidalgo." (Similarly, these documents may be located by going to "Contents," then "Regions," then "Texas," then click on the titles.)

Use the documents to answer the following questions.

1. U.S. officials had long coveted Florida. (In fact, some had tried to argue that it was part of the Louisiana Purchase.) Why would Florida have been attractive to the United States? What assets did it possess? What purpose(s) would acquiring it from Spain serve for the United States?
2. According to the first two documents from "Westward Expansion," for what reasons should the United States go to war with Mexico? What similarities and differences do you note in these two documents?
3. How does President James K. Polk's war message compare with the two preceding documents? Does Polk justify the war in the same terms that O'Sullivan and Whitman did before the fact? Does he add anything to the mixture of reasons for the war that they omitted? If so, what?
4. How does the outcome of the war, as laid out in the Treaty of Guadelupe Hidalgo, square with the purposes for which it was supposedly fought? Did the United States get what it wanted? Did it get more than it bargained for? Explain.
5. Collectively, these two episodes of U.S. territorial expansion demonstrate the ideology of Manifest Destiny--the idea that the United States was destined to occupy all of North America. What might have justified such an idea? How might the expansion of U.S. boundaries have created problems for the nation? (Think broadly here about the condition of U.S. society by the 1840s, especially the differences between the North and the South.)

Activity 10
Because the United States developed into essentially two different societies--one free, the other slave--it became difficult by the mid-nineteenth century to formulate a coherent national stance on important questions that could affect different sections differently.

One topic of disagreement was whether slavery should be permitted in new states incorporated into the nation, such as the states to be carved from the Louisiana Purchase or the land gained from Mexico in 1848.

Throughout the nineteenth century, a series of compromises were undertaken to keep the peace on this question. As an examination of these compromises makes clear, though, they might delay an inevitable showdown on the question of slavery but they could not prevent it.

Within the module "The Civil War," go to the following documents:

• "The Missouri Compromise"
• "Wilmot Defends His Proviso"
• "The Compromise of 1850."

These documents may all be located by going to "Westward Expansion and Bleeding Kansas" in the "Key Topics" section. Scroll down to and click on the links "Missouri Compromise," "Wilmot Proviso," and "Compromise of 1850."

Use the documents to answer the following questions.

1. The document "The Missouri Compromise" spells out specifics regarding where slavery is permitted in the Louisiana Territory and where it is forbidden. Without worrying about the details of the Missouri Compromise line, discuss which side--slave or free--received the better end of the compromise. Why would the side that came up short have agreed to the deal? What were the alternatives? Why were they unacceptable?
2. David Wilmot's proviso, discussed in the second document, sought to limit the expansion of slavery into the lands acquired from Mexico by the Treaty of Guadelupe Hidalgo. Why would southerners have vehemently opposed this proposal? What motivation would they have ascribed to those who backed it?
3. The Compromise of 1850 was a last-ditch effort to avert the breakup of the nation over the question of slavery in the western territories. What were its main provisions? Does the compromise seem to you to hold the keys to a long-term détente on the question? Why or why not? Be specific in explaining your position here.
4. All of these measures were aimed at the future of slavery, not at its present position. Nevertheless, they all generated significant grumbling in the South. Why would that have been the case? What did southerners fear? Why? Does their fear seem justified?
5. Politicians like Thomas Jefferson had believed that access to new territory was the route to national peace and prosperity. Yet it was precisely the disposition of new lands that generated the controversies settled by the compromises of 1821 and 1850. Why didn't these new lands generate peace? What about the American system made disposition of the new lands problematic and highly contentious? Given what you know about the earliest U.S. settlements, was there any way to have prevented the conflicts that developed after 1820? If so, what could have been done?