CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. The Road to War: Aggression and Response
A. The rise of aggressor states during the 1930s
1. War began in Asia first
a. Stemmed from Japanese aggression in China
b. U.S. and League of Nations refused to recognize Japanese gains
c. No resort to force, though, by international community
d. Japan ignored other nations and withdrew from League in 19352. Aggression also in Europe
a. Nazis came to power in Germany in 1933
b. Thereafter renounced Versailles treaty and withdrew from League
c. Aggressive rantings also from Fascist Italy
d. Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935B. Isolationist sentiment and American neutrality
1. Americans wanted to remain aloof from these developing troubles abroad
2. Legacy of World War I was isolationist sentiment
3. Nye Committee concluded that US entry into World War I had resulted from manipulation of the Wilson administration by bankers and munitions makers
4. Congress enacted neutrality acts in 1935 and 1936a. Arms embargo against belligerents
b. Prohibited loans to belligerents
c. Curtailed travel by Americans on ships belonging to nations at war5. Additional Neutrality Act in 1937
a. Broadened trade embargo to cover all trade unless nations paid cash and carried goods on own ships
b. Minimized danger to America’s export sector
c. Reduced risk that presence of American commerce in war zone might bring US into war6. Britain also pursuing isolation and eventually appeasement
a. Did nothing when Germany remilitarized Rhineland in 1936
b. Remained out of Spanish Civil War
c. US also refused to help nationalists in Spain, which guaranteed a Fascist winC. Growing interventionist sentiment
1. Growing debate over foreign policy after Spanish Civil War
a. Conservatives hailed Franco as strong anticommunist
b. Political left renounced growing support for fascism in Europe2. Split over wisdom of neutrality legislation and aloof posture from European troubles
3. FDR positiona. Tilted toward interventionism
b. In Oct 1937, called for “quarantine” of aggressor nations
c. Suggested some modification of neutrality legislation4. Congress did nothing for time being
D. The mounting crisis abroad
1. Japan attacked China in summer of 1937
2. Japanese plan for East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere
3. Panay incident heightened tensions between Japan and the United States
4. Germany and Italy created “Axis” alliance in Oct 1936
5. In Nov, Japan joined Axis in anticommunist alliance
6. Italy withdrew from League of Nations in Nov 1936
7. Germany annexed Austria in Mar 1938 and announced plans to take Sudetenland
8. US announced plan for naval rearmament in May 1938E. The outbreak of war in Europe
1. At Munich Conference in Sep 1938, Britain and France sought to avoid war with Germany
2. Promise of peace destroyed when Germany invaded and conquered all of Czechoslovakia
3. Nonaggression pact with Soviet Union in Aug 1939 secured Germany’s eastern flank
4. In Sep, Germany invaded Poland
5. Britain and France belatedly took action by coming to Poland’s defense and declaring war on Axis
6. By June 1940, Germany had overrun Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and FranceF. America’s response to war in Europe
1. Official neutrality, but FDR clearly favored Allied powers over Axis
2. FDR tried between 1939 and 1941 to mobilize public opinion against the Neutrality Acts
3. Cash and carry provision applied to arms sales to belligerents in late 1939
4. First peacetime draft initiated in 1940
5. US ultimately abandoned all pretense of neutrality and began providing war material to Allies
6. From Aug-Oct 1940, Germany bombed British air bases daily
7. Hitler switched strategies prematurely, though, and began bombing London instead
8. Destroyers for bases deal in Sep provided direct aid to Britaina. Aroused significant domestic opposition
b. Signaled FDR’s growing determination to do what was necessary to save Britain9. Opposition to FDR’s policies was quick to develop
a. America First Committee was most formidable
b. Organized by Robert E. Wood of Sears, Roebuck, and Company
c. Aviation hero Charles Lindbergh was member
d. Opponents included isolationists, pacifists, and political conservatives10. Anti-Semitism affected US response to European crises
a. German American Bund defended Nazi anti-Semitism
b. Wagner-Rogers Bill, which would have boosted immigration quotas to allow for entry of Jewish children, was defeated11. FDR’s policies, though, did have some supporters
a. Military Training Camps Association lobbied on behalf of Selective Service Act
b. Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies12. FDR toned down pro-Allied rhetoric during 1940 presidential campaign
13. After winning re-election, FDR unveiled even more ambitious plans for helping the AlliesG. An “arsenal of democracy”
1. Lend-lease Act, 1941
a. Response to Britain’s near bankruptcy
b. Would make United States a “great arsenal of democracy”
c. Provoked great opposition in Congress, but passed anyway2. Efforts to coordinate military planning with Britain
3. Atlantic Charter, Aug 1941a. Eight-point declaration of common principles for the war
b. FDR agreement to send US ships as far as Iceland to protect goods headed for Britain
c. Led to undeclared naval war with Germany4. FDR and his advisers concluded by summer of 1941 that US involvement in war would be necessary to defeat the Axis
5. Problem was bringing public alongH. Pearl Harbor
1. Japan, rather than Germany, sparked US entry into the war
2. US measures throughout 1930s had not stopped Japanese moves in Asia
3. Japanese threats to European colonies in Asia caused US to take firmer measures
4. US halted sales to Japan of aviation fuel and scrap iron in 1940
5. Only intensified Japan’s assault and led to consolidation of Axis alliance in Sep
6. US froze Japanese assets in mid-1941, effectively bringing all commerce between the two countries under presidential control
7. Japanese decided on wara. Act of desperation
b. Only concession that might have restarted US shipments of materials was withdrawal from China, which was impossible8. Surprise attack on Pearl Harbor and other Pacific territories on 7 Dec 1941
a. Result of mistakes and confusion rather than deviousness
b. US expected Japanese attack elsewhere, not at Pearl Harbor9. US declared war on Japan on 8 DEC 1941
10. Germany and Italy subsequently declared war on US
II. Fighting the War in Europe
A. Early months of US involvement in war discouraging
1. Germany rolled into North Africa and threatened the Suez Canal
2. German submarines sunk 7 million tons of Allied shipping in first 16 months after Pearl Harbor
3. Japan overran huge portions of the PacificB. Need for rapid mobilization of military policy
1. Joint Chiefs of Staff created to guide strategy
2. Military apparatus of government dwarfed diplomatic
3. Scientific and technological advances were importanta. Radar
b. Code-breakingC. Campaigns in North Africa and Italy
1. Allies (United States, Great Britain, Soviet Union) all agreed to pursue Europe-first strategy
2. Soviets wanted second front opened in Europe to relieve pressure on them in the east
3. British insisted instead on invasion of North Africa
4. FDR sided with British at Casablanca Conference in Jan 1943
5. Operation TORCH launched in Nov 1942
6. As TORCH progressed, Soviets turned tide at Battle of Stalingrad
7. North Africa liberated in Apr and May 1943
8. Allies then turned to invasion of Sicily and Italy
9. Calls among US military advisers to begin focusing on EuropeD. Operation OVERLORD
1. Second front finally launched in June 1944
2. Germans tricked into expecting invasion at narrowest portion of English Channel rather than in Normandy region
3. Turned tide of battle in the west
4. Within three months, Allied troops had entered Paris
5. Allied disagreement about how quickly the Anglo-Americans should move eastward into Germany so as to beat the Soviets to Berlin
6. Eisenhower decided to stop at Elbe River and allow Soviets to take Berlin
7. As war wound down, horrors of Holocaust became known
8. Allies prosecuted high German officials for war crimes in 1945 and 1946
9. Germany surrendered on 8 May 1945, shortly after Hitler’s suicide
10. Military foundations for peace in placea. Soviets occupied Eastern Europe
b. British and American forces predominated in Italy and rest of Mediterranean
c. Germany and Austria under divided occupation
III. The Pacific Theater
A. Early war in Pacific went Japan’s way
1. Singapore, the Philippines, Guam, and Wake Island fell easily
2. Bataan Death March resulted in deaths of more than 7,000 soldiersB. Seizing the initiative
1. Japan’s first defeat came in Battle of the Coral Sea in May 1942
2. Battle of Midway was costly for Allies, but the Japanese were prevented from taking the island
3. Allied advances continued at Guadalcanal and the Solomon Islands and succeeded in seizing the initiative from the Japanese
4. War in Pacific revealed racist assumptions on both sidesC. China policy
1. US officials hoped that China would fight effectively against Japan and emerge as a strong and united nation
2. Nationalist government under Jiang Jieshi was incompetent, corrupt, and unpopular
3. Growing communist movement under Mao Zedong was fighting effectively against the Japanese and enjoyed widespread support among the peasants
4. FDR continued to aid Jiang even though he refused to wholeheartedly engage the Japanese occupation force
5. Domestic China lobby insisted that US aid to Jiang continueD. Pacific strategy
1. Unlike Europe, no unified command to guide war in Pacific
2. Disagreements and forced compromises were the rulea. General Douglas MacArthur wanted to retake Philippines
b. Admiral Chester Nimitz wanted to go after smaller Pacific islands and bypass Philippines
c. Joint Chiefs couldn't decide between the two, so they authorized both3. U.S. success throughout 1943 and 1944
4. Use of Navajo-speaking soldiers guaranteed secrecy of sensitive information
5. US capture of Saipan in late 1944 brought US bombers within range of Japan
6. Conquest of Iwo Jima and Okinawa further shortened distance between Allies and Japan
7. Airpower played decisive role in war against Japana. Use of airpower in England and against German cities such as Dresden and Hamburg had delivered mixed results
b. “Hap” Arnold’s plan for firebombing Japanese cities
c. Incendiary bombings of Japan resulted in unprecedented civilian casualties8. Combined sea and air strategy had emerged by the winter of 1944-45
a. Blockade of seaports, bombardment of cities, perhaps invasion
b. Ultimate end was Japan’s unconditional surrenderE. A new president
1. FDR’s death in April 1945 shocked nation
2. New president, Harry S. Truman, seemed small compared to FDRa. Simply a “little man from Missouri”
b. Critics considered him poorly prepared for the job of president
c. Knew little about FDR’s plans or informal understandings with international leadersF. Atomic power and Japanese surrender
1. Work on atomic bomb had proceeded throughout war at Los Alamos, New Mexico
2. Succeeded in July 1945 with test at the Trinity site near Alamagordo, New Mexico
3. Government assumed that weapon would be used as soon as it was ready
4. Some dissenters, though, worried about using the bomb in combat
5. Atomic bombs used against two previously unbombed Japanese citiesa. Hiroshima, 6 Aug
b. Nagasaki, 9 Aug
c. Seemed simply an acceleration of existing policy rather than a departure from it6. Japan agreed to surrender on 15 Aug
7. Surrender documents signed on 2 Sep on board battleship Missouri in Tokyo Bay
IV. The War at Home: The Economy
A. Government’s role in the economy
1. Federal bureaucracy nearly quadrupled in size during the war
a. War Production Board oversaw production and ensured that military needs were met
b. War Labor Board dealt with labor-management disputes
c. War Manpower Commission allocated workers to various industries
d. Office of Price Administration controlled inflation and handled rationing2. Wartime controls ended shortly after conclusion of hostilities, but concept of greater government regulation of the economy continued
3. Economy as a whole grew rapidly during the war
4. Industry formed close ties to Washington during the war
5. Office of Scientific Research and Development supported projects with universities and scientists
6. Manhattan Project was most dramatic example of the new connections among science, national defense, and the federal governmentB. Business and finance
1. Dramatic rise in government spending during the war
2. Dramatic increase as well in the national debt
3. War funded primarily through bond subscriptions purchased by US citizens
4. Civilian rationing of things like food, fabrics, and gasoline
5. Sacrifices of war spread throughout the population
6. Anti-New Deal coalition in Congress appeared by 1942a. Shut down many of the New Deal’s aid programs
b. Slashed funding for comprehensive national economic planning7. Administration adopted a more business-friendly attitude during the war
8. Many businesses, such as Wrigley’s and Coca-Cola, prospered during the war
9. Power was concentrated in largest corporations
10. Small businesses dealt primarily with shortage-prone, resource-denied civilian economyC. The workforce
1. Many idle workers found jobs during first two years of wartime mobilization
2. Initial focus was on training white men
3. Ultimately, women and minorities were welcomed into the workforcea. Entered areas previously off-limits to them
b. Still, generally worked in segregated conditions4. Increased attention to volunteer activities
5. Equation of frugality with patriotism in government propaganda
6. Position of African Americans generally improveda. Fair Employment Practices Commission tried to ban discrimination in hiring
b. War Labor Board outlawed differential wages for whites and blacks
c. Many African Americans moved to northern cities during the war7. In general, the war brought higher wages and longer work hours for most workers
D. Labor unions
1. Scarcity of labor substantially strengthened the labor union movement
2. Women and minorities joined unions in unprecedented numbers
3. Still, weak commitment at national level to organizing women
4. Returning veterans given priority when war was over
5. Women and minorities eased out of their jobs once peace returned
6. Entry of African Americans into workforce resulted in some racially motivated violence
7. Some walkouts and strikes, but not many during war
8. Smith-Connally Act of 1943 allowed president to seize plants or mines if strikes interrupted war productionE. Assessing economic change
1. Workplace and labor unions became more inclusive in terms of gender and race
2. Institutional scale of American life transformeda. Big government, big business, and big labor all grew even bigger
b. Science and technology forged new links among all three
c. Urban-based, bureaucratized institutions increasingly organized life in postwar America
V. The War at Home: Social Issues
A. Wartime propaganda
1. Asked Americans to fight for the “American way of life”--not to save the world
2. Frank Capra directed Why We Fight series for government
3. Other directors filmed soldiers in battle
4. Advertisers were encouraged to sell the benefits of freedom and life in America
5. Office of Facts and Figures disseminated information to the public
6. Office of War Information coordinated policies related to propaganda and censorshipB. Gender equality
1. As more women entered the workforce, people began to take seriously the idea of gender equality
2. Some 350,000 women volunteered for military service during the war
3. Congress seriously considered, but did not pass, an Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution
4. Still, governmental policies and propaganda framed changes in women’s roles in highly traditional terms
5. War also widened symbolic gap between “femininity” and “masculinity”a. Military culture fostered pin-up mentality toward women
b. Wartime fiction associated manliness with brutality and casual sexC. Racial equality
1. Messages about race as ambiguous as those related to gender
2. Wartime culture both propelled and resisted change
3. Prewar American society had been sharply segregated
4. Growing acceptance of idea that a democracy like the United States could accommodate racial difference
5. Northward migration of African Americans accelerated demands for racial equality
6. African Americans understood the irony of fighting overseas for a country that denied them equality at home
7. Call for Double V--victory at home as well as abroad
8. Pressure by A. Philip Randolph led to creation of Fair Employment Practices Commission
9. FDR let stand the segregation of the US armed forcesD. Racial tensions
1. Influx of African American workers into northern cities sparked racial turmoil
2. Established residents, many of them experiencing their first chance for upward mobility, resented competition from newcomers for war jobs
3. Public housing situation particularly tense
4. Zoot suit incidents in Los Angeles in 1943 pitted Anglos against Mexican Americans
5. American Indians migrated to cities in large numbers during the wara. War introduced powerful pressures for migration and assimilation
b. Many Indians moved back and forth between city and reservation6. Committee (later Congress) of Racial Equality founded in 1942 to provide nonviolent resistance to segregation
7. Unique situation faced by people of Japanese descenta. Fear of sabotage by pro-Japanese residents in months after Pearl Habor
b. FDR signed Executive Order 9066 in Feb 1942i. Called for relocation and internment of all first- and second-generation Japanese Americans at inland camps
ii. Two-thirds of detainees were native-born US citizens
iii. No relocation took place in Hawaii8. Tensions also developed between city dwellers and migrants from rural areas
9. Wartime movements of people eroded distinctions based on geography, ethnicity, and race
10. Wartime demands for additional labor weakened the barriers to many occupations
VI. Shaping the Peace
A. International organizations
1. New United Nations would fulfill Woodrow Wilson’s vision of an international body to deter aggressor nations
a. General Assembly to be comprised of all nations
b. Security Council with five permanent members and six rotating members
c. Secretariat would handle day-to-day business
d. Economic and Social Council would promote social and economic advancement2. US joined UN with little opposition, unlike situation over League of Nations after World War I
3. US expected to dominate UN because of its overwhelming international power
4. Eleanor Roosevelt helped to draft the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the UN in 1948
5. Bretton Woods Conference, 1944a. International Monetary Fund to ensure currency convertibility
b. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) provided reconstruction loans and promoted resumption of world tradeB. Spheres of interest and postwar settlements
1. Wartime discussions seemed to assume that there would be spheres of influence among the great powers
a. Soviets would have control over Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia
b. Anglo-Americans would have control over Italy
c. Britain would have sway over Greece; Soviet Union over Bulgaria and Romania2. Yet FDR also stressed importance of self-determination
3. Military realities of war meant that self-determination would be jettisoned
4. Germany became special focus of bipolar tensionsa. Early wartime agreement between FDR and Stalin on Germany’s dismemberment and deindustrialization after the war
b. At Yalta, it was decided that Germany would be divided into four occupation zones
c. Temporary division ultimately solidified into a Soviet-dominated eastern zone that faced off against the three western zones, which eventually merged5. Postwar rivalries also centered on Poland
a. Wartime government-in-exile in London
b. Communist-backed government in Lublin
c. Yalta promise of free elections, but it was ambiguous and open to multiple interpretations6. In Asia, military realities influenced postwar settlements
a. Stalin pledged at the Teheran Conference to enter the war against Japan once Germany had been defeated
b. Once atomic bomb was ready, US no longer needed or wanted Soviet intervention7. Fate of European colonies seized by Japan another unresolved issue during the war
a. US would have preferred independence
b. But many anticolonial nationalist movements were pro-communist
c. US helped Britain and France regain control of colonies after the war8. War affected even Latin America
a. Office of Inter-American Affairs created in 1937 to further cultural and economic ties
b. All hemispheric nations save Argentina and Chile broke diplomatic relations with Axis in Jan 1942 at Rio de Janiero9. Wartime discussions avoided clear decisions about creating a Jewish homeland in the Middle East
a. Survivors of the Holocaust and Jews from around the world adopted a Zionist position in the postwar period
b. Independent state of Israel proclaimed in 1948, and United States immediately recognized
