American Journey - Chapter 1

1. Earliest Americans

Beginning the Journey
A number of modules within the American Journey Online database contain material--documents, images, and other sources--relevant to this era: "Women in America," "The Hispanic-American Experience," and "The Native American Experience."

The most efficient way to begin searching the modules for this information is to search by year in the "Contents" section of each module. By clicking on the years listed (go from the earliest one listed for each module through 1492 or so), you can view significant events for the era of early civilization and locate some initial relevant documents and images.

Utilizing the lists of related items that appear at the top of most documents and images will then direct you to additional items of interest.

Another way to begin identifying documents and images of relevance is to click on the "Key Topics" for the various modules. Scan through the topics and click on those that seem appropriate. (It's not always possible to determine what the topical discussions cover from their titles, though, so you may want to check out all of the topics just to be sure you're casting the widest possible net in your search for relevant sources.)

The modules of relevance to this era are particularly rich in interesting images, and you should try to view as many as you can.

Activity 1 Long before the arrival of the Europeans, most Native American societies formulated "creation myths" to explain why and how their particular people ended up living where they did. By studying these myths, historians and other scholars have come to make sense of how Native Americans viewed themselves and their surroundings. (More about creation myths may be found under "Origins" in the "Key Topics" section of the "Native American Experience" module.)

Two of the myths contained in the American Journey Online database relate the creation stories of the Mayans and the Aztecs, rival societies that lived in present-day Mexico and Central America. The Aztecs built an impressive capital city, Tenochtitlán, near present-day Mexico City. The Spanish conquered the Aztecs and reduced Tenochtitlán to ruins in 1521. Three years later the Spanish conquered the Mayans, who had developed a highly sophisticated hieroglyphic writing system. Another of the creation myths describes the origins of the Acomas, who lived on the edge of the Spanish empire in America in what is now New Mexico; their pueblo was destroyed by the Spanish in 1599.

Examining the creation myths of these three peoples will give you a rudimentary understanding of Native American ideas on creation. Locate the following image and two documents within the module "The Native American Experience":

"Chicomoztoc" (one way to locate this image is to click on "Contents," then "Images," then "C," then the title)
"Popol Vuh" (one way to locate this document is to go to "Contents," then "Regions," then "Mexico and Central America," then scroll down to the title)
"Emerging into the Upper World" (one way to locate this document is to go to "Contents," then "Documents," then "E," then scroll down to the title).

Study the image, read the documents, and use all three to answer the following questions.

What similarities do you find among these three sources? What differences?
How might historians and other scholars account for the similarities and differences in the accounts related in these sources? What role might the geographical location of each society have played in shaping its creation story? How and why?
Some scholars have used creation myths to support claims of Native Americans' deep respect for nature. What specific passages in the documents could be utilized to support this point of view? Support your choices.
Each of the creation myths explored here situates people differently in nature. Discuss these differences. Do they suggest that each of the three societies viewed nature in its own way? Explain.
Beyond explaining how Native Americans view nature in general, creation myths can reveal a society's view of its own land, and the land of others. How might the creation myths you've studied here help to illuminate each society's ideas of land and place? Explain

Activity 2
Historians are now quite certain that Vikings reached the New World almost five centuries before Christopher Columbus. For whatever reason(s), however, they failed to establish permanent settlements.

The module "The Native American Experience" within the American Journey Online database contains several sources that discuss the Viking presence in North America. Within that module, go to the image "Heavener Runestone" and the document "The Vinland Sagas." (One way to accomplish this is to go to "Contents," then "Years," then "1000." The image and the document are listed there.)

Use the image and the document to answer the following questions.

Scholars are in dispute about the authenticity of the Heavener Runestone, which could prove that the Vikings ventured as far west as Oklahoma sometime early in the ninth century. What might lead them to doubt the stone's authenticity? How might its authenticity be proven? If the stone is authentic, how would it change our understanding about the European arrival in North America, if at all?
"The Vinland Sagas" recounts several Viking encounters with Native Americans, referred to in the selections as "Skraelings." How can historians and other scholars use first-hand accounts such as these in their efforts to reconstruct the past? What do sources like these do best? What, if any, are their limitations?
Based upon your reading of the selections, what do they tell you about the nature of the Viking encounter with the "Skraelings"? About why the Vikings did not establish permanent settlements in North America? Be specific.
The selections reproduced here from "The Vinland Sagas" suggest several things about the role that technology played in the Viking adventure in North America. Discuss this role with specific reference to the selections.
What functions do the leaders depicted in these excepts perform? What sets them apart from their followers? How would quality leaders have been crucial to the success of European expeditions to America?

Activity 3
Native American peoples often had deep philosophical traditions and kept detailed histories of their own existence.

American Journey Online contains a good overall description of Native American religious philosophies under the "Key Topic" "Religious Traditions." Within the module, locate the document "The American Indian Vision of Eloh'," which pertains to the Cherokee people of what is now the southwestern United States. (One way to accomplish this is to search under "Vision of Eloh'." The document is the only item that the search returns.)

Use the document to answer the following questions.

The document is part history, part religious explanation. Identify as many different threads of the document as you can, being sure to explain what function those threads perform within the overall document.
The document reprinted in the database would originally have been handed down orally, rather than in writing. Does this place any limitations on its credibility or usefulness to scholars? Why or why not?
Europeans who heard the stories related in the document were clearly struck by their similarities to biblical tales. What parts of the document are reminiscent of stories from the Christian Bible? How might scholars account for these similarities?

Within the same module, go now to the document "The Migration from Shinar," which builds on the first to conclude that Native Americans were descended from the Lost Tribes of Israel described in the Bible. (This document may be reached by choosing its title from the list of related items that appears at the top of "The American Indian Vision of Eloh'.")

Use this second document, in conjunction with the first, to answer the following questions.

What similarities does the author of the second document note between the Native American ritual he describes and Jewish ceremonies? Do any of these similarities seem to be a stretch? If so, which ones?
Why would Europeans have wanted to see Native Americans as being descended from the Lost Tribes? What purpose would thinking this way have served for them? How would this conclusion have eased the European encounter with native peoples? How would it have been culturally motivated?

Activity 4
In addition to formulating the creation myths discussed in Activity 1, Native Americans also related stories about the world's end. (More about these Native American ideas may be found under "The End of the World" in the "Key Topics" section of "The Native American Experience" module.)

End-of-the-world stories were common to many different native societies throughout North America, and "The Native American Experience" module relates a number of them. One is from the Sioux of the Great Plains. Another comes from the neighboring Cheyenne people. And still a third originated with the Chiricahua Apache of the southwest. To locate these myths, go to "Index," then "M," then scroll down to "Myths, Eschatological." Use "Weaving the Destiny of the World," "The Angry Beaver," and "All the Water Will Dry Up" to answer the following questions.

How are these three stories similar? How are they different? How might historians account for these similarities and differences?
How do these stories of the end of the world compare to the creation myths you have already explored? Be specific regarding both similarities and differences.
Do the stories recounted in the documents offer any chance that the end of the world can be avoided or postponed? In other words, do people have the power to change the future?
How can historians and other scholars use these kinds of myths to understand the way native peoples saw their relationship with the world? To understand how Native Americans viewed the early European explorers and settlers?
Would any of these stories have generated conflict with groups that did not subscribe to them? How?

Activity 5
The Iroquois Confederacy brought five nations--the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas--together into a unique alliance. Historians have been unable to date the formation of the alliance with certainty, though it was likely formed around 1145.

The Confederacy was governed by a covenant known as the Great Law of Peace. We would recognize such a document today as a constitution. Studying the Iroquois plan of government can provide a window into how the Confederacy governed itself, how its leaders were chosen, and a host of other related subjects. Within the module "The Native American Experience," go to the document "The Iroquois Constitution." (This can be accomplished by clicking on "Contents," then "Regions," then "Northeast," then scrolling down to the title.)

Use this document to answer the following questions.

Historians consider the Great Law of Peace as akin to a constitution. Which of its features focus on laying out the Confederacy's governmental structure? What else does the Great Law do?
The excerpt of the Great Law contained in the American Journey Online database begins with an explanatory note detailing the document's provenance (origins). Including this note is very helpful to scholars studying a document such as this one, which has been handed down orally. Why might this be the case?
The Great Law makes numerous provisions for settling differences, resolving disputes, and amicably arriving at rules and laws. Nevertheless, the provisions laid out for governance seem problematic. What problems can you note in the Confederacy's governmental structure? How are these problems endemic in all confederations? What effect might they have had on the Confederacy's effectiveness or cohesion?

Many Native American societies, including those that comprised the Iroquois Confederacy, believed that a natural "force," which they called orenda, dwelt in all living beings, individually and collectively. This concept can be used to understand the specifics of the Great Law of Peace of the Five Nations. Go now to "Orenda of the Iroquois" by Thomas Henry in "The Native American Experience" module. (One way to accomplish this is to search for the term "orenda.")

Use this second document to answer the following questions about the first.

How does the concept of orenda help to explain the strictures regarding leadership selection outlined in the Iroquois Constitution? Why do you believe that these rules were put in place?
How can scholars use these sources to understand why the Great Law is as it is?

Activity 6
Women played important political and economic roles in many Native American societies. Some, such as the Iroquois, were actually formed along matrilineal lines and vested virtually all power in women. Children, for example, belonged to the family of the mother rather than the father, and women rather than men chose societal leaders. (Recall the leadership selection scheme laid out in the "Orenda of the Iroquois.")

The "Women in America" module contains a number of images by artist John White that depict Native American women in various activities. (To access them, go to "Contents," then "Authors," then "W," then scroll down and view each of the images individually. The fifth image in the list may be skipped.)

Use the images and the accompanying commentaries to answer the following questions.

Taken together, what do these images tell you about women in Native American society? About the different functions they performed? About the positions they held?
Historians and other scholars use images like these to learn about people and societies that left few written records. What can be learned from such sources? Are there dangers in using images as historical sources? If so, what are they?
These images appeared in England in 1590. How might they have been received at the time? What thoughts about the New World and its native inhabitants would they have conjured up?
The commentaries that accompany the images suggest that several things about White's images would have been surprising to Englishmen and other Europeans. What do you suppose these surprising features were? Support your choices with evidence. Does anything about the images surprise you? Why or why not?
How would you describe the style of White's images? His goal was to present his subjects in an accurate, non-exaggerated, non-fanciful way. Based upon the five images you have examined here, how successful was he in achieving his goal? Explain. How does White's style affect the usefulness of these images for historians (and students) today?

Activity 7
The Aztec capital Tenochtitlán was extremely sophisticated for its time. It was also lavish in the ornamentation of its buildings. The module "The Hispanic-American Experience" contains a contemporary map of the city. (To locate it, click on "Contents," then "Key Topics," then "Aztlán and After," then scroll down to the section titled "Establishing an Empire," then click on the link "Tenochtitlán.")

Use the image to answer the following questions.

What does the map of Tenochtitlán tell you about the way that the Aztecs divided the various functions of daily life? About how they separated different facets of society? What can you learn from the map about Aztec society in general?
What can you determine about the Aztecs' knowledge and use of technology from the map and from what you know about where Tenochtitlán was located? How might Aztec knowledge of technology affected their eventual relationship with the Spanish?
Why do you think the Aztecs would have located their capital on an island? What are the advantages and disadvantages of doing so?
Tenochtitlán was quite unlike the cities of Spain. What might the Europeans have thought of it? Of the people who constructed it?
How can this map, and maps in general, be used to do more than demonstrate the specific locations of buildings, landmarks, and natural resources? Are maps legitimate sources for historians? Explain.

Activity 8 The Mayans developed an extensive hieroglyphic writing system and produced possibly hundreds of books prior to the arrival of the Spanish. (More about the Mayans may be found under "Key Topics," then "Legacy of Splendor, Legacy of Torture" within the module "The Hispanic-American Experience.")

Within that module, go to the document "The Writing of the Mayans." (One way to accomplish this is to utilize the search function, type in the term "Mayan writing," and click on the number 1 at the first entry in the list the search yields.)

Use the document to answer the following questions.

The author of this document, who personally helped to destroy many Mayan written records, expresses strong sentiments about the Mayan writing system and its practitioners. Discuss his views, both in their descriptive coverage and in their emotional expressions.
Does the author of the document make any comparisons, direct or indirect, between the Mayan writing system and that used by his own society? Refer to specifics from the document in answering this question.
How can second-hand sources like this one help historians reconstruct the story of the Mayans, since many of their own records were destroyed during the Spanish conquest? How can these sorts of sources be useful in general?

Within the same module, now go to the image "A Page of the Dresden Codex," which presents an actual example of Mayan writing. (This can be accomplished by clicking on "Contents," then "Images," then scrolling down to "P," then clicking on the title.)

Use this image, and the document above, to answer the following questions.

Does the kind of writing pictured here remind you of any other writing system? If so, what system? What does this writing system say about Mayan civilization? About the sophistication of its people?
Why would the Spanish have had the sort of reaction described in the first document to the kind of writing pictured here? What images might it have conjured up for them? Be specific and make reference to the sources when answering these questions.

Activity 9 In addition to devising a sophisticated hieroglyphic writing system, the Mayans also built impressive temples for worship and commemoration of battlefield victories against their enemies.

Images of two different, but near-by, Mayan temples are located in "The Hispanic-American Experience" module of the American Journey Online database. To locate them, go to "Contents," then "Years," then "0900," then click on "El Castillo." The other image, "The Temple of Warriors," may be selected from the list of related items that appears at the top of the first image.

Use the two images to answer the following questions.

"El Castillo," as it was dubbed by the Spanish, is an example of Mayan architecture at its height and was very impressive to the early Spanish explorers. What would they have found wondrous or unusual about El Castillo? Why?
What features of the second image, "The Temple of Warriors," are similar to El Castillo? Different? Be specific.
How would the purposes of the two structures--the first most likely as a place of worship, the second as a place for celebrating military victories--have determined their configuration? Support your answer with specific references to the images.
Taken together, how do these images help to provide a clearer picture of Mayan society? About the role of warfare and religion in that society?
How can historians and other scholars use the remains of ancient buildings to construct a fuller picture of the past? What sorts of things can they learn from these sources? What limitations do such sources have?

Activity 10 The Aztecs were fierce warriors who at one time served as mercenaries for other societies. They were also polytheistic in their religious practices, worshipping numerous gods and believing that people could be turned into animals.

Several images within "The Hispanic-American Experience" module relate to the Aztecs' religious life--and the Spanish reaction to it. Within that module, locate the images "Aztec Human Sacrifice" and "Spaniards Destroying Idols in Mexico." (This can be accomplished by searching for "Aztec sacrifice." The images are the first two items in the list.)

Use the images to answer the following questions.

What aspects of Aztec society and religion are suggested in "Aztec Human Sacrifice"?
Does this first image suggest anything about the role of religious practices in everyday Aztec life? About the function of religion in the Aztec state as a whole?
Drawing on your knowledge of other societies, speculate about whether the Aztec practice of human sacrifice as depicted in this image was unique. What other societies with which you are familiar adhered to such a practice?
The Spanish found the Aztec practice of human sacrifice quite disconcerting. Identify as many reasons why this would have been the case as you can. Besides the activity depicted in the second image, how else might the Spanish have made clear their thoughts on this matter?
What does the second image say about the role of religion in Spanish society at the time? In the Spanish conquest of the New World? What does the image suggest about the overall cultural clash between the Spanish and the Aztecs?