American Journey - Chapter 9

9. Progressivism and Industrial Society (1900-1916)

Beginning the Journey
Users searching for information on the Progressive Era should begin with "World War I and the Jazz Age," which contains a large number of sources on numerous aspects of Progressivism. Scanning the "Key Topics" and searching the "Years" of the module are two good ways to begin.

Additional materials for this period may be located in "The Native American Experience," "The Constitution and Supreme Court," "The African-American Experience," "Women in America," and "The Asian-American Experience." Again, utilizing the "Years" function provides users with a rudimentary introduction to the events for the Progressive Era covered in each of these modules. Users with a specific phrase in mind will also find the "Search" function and the "Index" helpful.

Exploring the various modules that contain material on the Progressive Era provides a good introduction to the multifaceted nature of the reforms associated with that era. It also helps users to appreciate the sometimes controversial character of the activism of the Progressives. To get the most out of the American Journey Online's sources for the Progressive Era, users are advised to explore the many interesting photographs sprinkled throughout the modules.

Activity 1
During the early years of the twentieth century, the United States exerted an increasing influence in the Western Hemisphere. Although that region had always been important to American foreign policymakers, it was only after the Spanish-American War that the U.S. presence in Central and South America became intense.

The exertion of U.S. influence in this hemisphere coincided with the nation's increasing interests in other parts of the world as well and demonstrates the nation's emergence as a world power.

Within the module "World War I and the Jazz Age," go to "Panama Canal Treaty" and "The Roosevelt Corollary." (These sources may be located by going to "Index," then "R," then "Roosevelt, Theodore," then click on the titles.)

Use these sources to answer the following questions.

What does the "Panama Canal Treaty" obligate each side to do? Which side seems to have gotten the better end of the deal? Support your answer with reference to the treaty.
How do the terms of the treaty demonstrate the disparity in power between the United States and Panama? How do they reveal the United States's self-conception? (Here note especially Article 1.)
What tone does Roosevelt assume in the second document? How do American assumptions color his words?
In what instances does Roosevelt suggest that American intervention in Latin America would be justified? Who would ultimately decide on the need for intervention? What does this say about who was to control the hemisphere?
Taken together, what do these two incidents suggest about the U.S. place in the Western Hemisphere? About how U.S. policymakers considered the wishes of other nations? About growing U.S. strength--military, diplomatic, economic?

Activity 2
Although the restrictions imposed during the last decades of the nineteenth century helped to reduce the Chinese population in California, Japanese immigrants there came in for their share of ire during the early years of the twentieth.

To deal with the growing Japanese population, many local authorities throughout the state took matters into their own hands. In San Francisco, the local school board's decision to segregate Japanese children threatened to lead to an international incident--demonstrating in the process the intertwining of domestic and foreign policies.

Within "The Asian-American Experience," go to "Excerpt from Message to Congress Concerning the Japanese Question" and "Gentlemen's Agreement." (You may locate these documents by going to "Contents," then "Regions," then "California," then click on the titles.)

Use these documents to answer the following questions.

Why does Roosevelt condemn the San Francisco action in his message to Congress? What is he afraid such action will lead to? How does it affect the United States as a whole?
How does the question of power come into Roosevelt's message, especially the power of the federal government vis-à-vis state and local authorities?
Explain the provisions of the Gentlemen's Agreement. What does it obligate the United States to do? What responsibilities, if any, does it prescribe for Japan?

Disputes over the Asian presence in California--and indeed, throughout the country--did not end after the Gentlemen's Agreement. In fact, the stakes became higher in 1913 when California imposed restrictions on land ownership.

Within the same module, go to "Alien Land Law." (This document may be located by the same procedure used to locate the documents above.)

Use this document to answer the following questions.

What specifically does the law prohibit? Why was it considered necessary? How was it likely to redress local complaints against the Japanese, if indeed it would?
What do these examples of anti-Japanese action in the United States reveal about prevailing conceptions of nationhood at the beginning of the twentieth century? About the extent of racial prejudice? About the difficulties of immigrants and non-citizens, especially Japanese and other Asians?

Activity 3
One aspect of the federal government's Native American policy became full-blown during the Progressive Era: the campaign for education and assimilation of Native American children.

Beginning in the late nineteenth century and continuing through the early twentieth, schools and training facilities were established across the country to provide both a general education to Native American youths and an introduction to "white" culture. The ultimate goal was to make them self-sufficient, assimilated members of mainstream society.

Like other aspects of U.S. policy toward Native Americans, the educational program assumed the superiority of white society and the backwardness of native ways of life.

Within "The Native American Experience," find the following sources:

"The Reservation School" (this document may be located by going to "Contents," then "Documents," then "R," then click on the title)
"School Rules" (this document may be located by the same procedure as the preceding one)
"A Classroom at the Riverside Indian School" (one way to locate this image is to go to "Contents," then "Images," then "C," then scroll down to the title)
"Indian Students Working in the Laundry at Riverside Indian School" (this image may be located by going to "Contents," then "Regions," then "Oklahoma," then scroll down to the title)
"Let My People Go" (you may locate this document by going to "Contents," then "Authors," then "M," then "Montezuma, Carlos," then click on the title).

Use these sources to answer the following questions.

How does the first selection make clear how federal education policy forced Native Americans to live two different lives? Use specifics from the document. How does the document reveal the "lure" of education? How does education seem to be pulling children away from their native cultures?
How do the rules related in the second source compare with the lessons Don Talayevsa recounts in the first document? What sort of lives are these rules pushing Native Americans toward? How distant are these new lives from their traditional ones? Why were these kinds of rules important? How did they illustrate the cultural assumptions of white society?
What do the two images add to your understanding of Progressive Era education for Native Americans? What is most striking about each of the two photographs? How do they illustrate the values of mainstream society?
How does the author of the last selection critique efforts at Native American assimilation and education? Utilize specifics from the document to support your answer.
Collectively, how do these sources make clear the early-twentieth-century debate over how best to treat Native Americans? What do they tell you about the limits of using the state to solve societal problems? About the way government formulates policy? And about how policies sometimes have unintended consequences?

Activity 4
The Progressive Era was noteworthy for its wide variety of reformist causes on behalf of numerous groups throughout the nation.

One campaign, waged initially by the American Association for Labor Legislation, pushed for what was called "social insurance." Exploring this campaign provides insight into the extent to which some reformers believed the government should go to meet the needs of its citizens.

Within "World War I and the Jazz Age," go to "Excerpt from Social Insurance," "State Commissions on Health Insurance, 1915-1921," and "Excerpt from The Quest for Security." (These documents may be located by going to "Contents," then "Documents," then the first letter of each title, then the title.)

Use these documents to answer the following questions.

What assumptions about the responsibilities of society or the government are made in the first document? Why must what Rubinow calls "organized society" assume these responsibilities?
What dangers do workers face, according to Rubinow, when they are not protected by social insurance? What does he assert to be the cost of these dangers, to both individuals and society? How persuasive is Rubinow's case for alleviating individual danger through collective social action?
According to the second document, how successful was the initial campaign to institute social insurance at the state level? What does the outcome say about the persuasiveness of Rubinow's arguments? About the limits of an expanding conception of government's/society's responsibilities to individuals?
What reasons does Rubinow advance in the third document for the failure of the social insurance movement? How logical do these ideas sound? Can you advance other reasons he omits?
The campaign for social insurance was similar to many efforts to repair society's problems during the Progressive Era. Identify its underlying assumptions and goals, and relate them to the Progressive agenda in general. How can this failed effort instruct historians today about the Progressive Era?

Activity 5
During the Progressive Era a group of investigative journalists sought to inform the public about a host of social problems that needed public--and governmental--attention. Collectively, these journalists were derisively referred to as "muckrakers," a term coined by Theodore Roosevelt to signal his disapproval with their work in dredging up society's problems.

Studying the work of some of the Progressive Era muckrakers helps to illustrate their reformist agenda. It also reveals the power of the written word during the early twentieth century, for many of the muckrakers did succeed in stimulating action.

Information on the muckrakers and their campaigns may be found in several modules of the American Journey Online. Within "The African-American Experience," go to "Excerpt from A Red Record." (One way to locate this document is to search for "Red Record." Choose the first item the search returns.) Within "World War I and the Jazz Age," go to "Excerpt from The Jungle," "Excerpt from The Shame of the Cities," and "Excerpt from The History of Standard Oil Company." (These documents may all be located by going to "Index," then "M," then "Muckrakers," then click on the individual titles.)

Use the documents to answer the following questions.

Compare the four documents. Consider such things are tone, writing style, expository technique, etc. Note both similarities and differences.
Although all four authors sought to solve different societal problems, they all fit the broad contours of Progressivism. Explain the place of each author within that larger crusade, being sure to demonstrate the Progressive nature of each reformer's position.
How does each author marshal facts to make his or her case? What effect would this technique have had on the reading public? Does it make it more or less likely that what the writer has to say will be respected?
Ultimately, the issues brought to the fore by each of these muckrakers did receive governmental attention, a fact that means their work was persuasive, at least to some. How persuasive do you find each document? Are they equally persuasive, or do some authors make better cases than others? If you note differences, try to explain them.

Although private muckrakers pioneered the tactics evidenced in the above documents, the federal government also got into the act of studying social problems. Within the "World War I and the Jazz Age," go now to "Excerpt from Reports of the Dillingham Commission." (One way to locate this document is to go to "Contents," then "Years," then "1911," then click on the title.)

Use the document, in conjunction with those above, to answer the following question.

Compare this congressional study with the documents above. What similarities and differences do you note? How might these similarities and differences be explained? Make specific reference to the documents in answering these questions.

Activity 6
As women had entered the workforce in larger numbers during the early part of the twentieth century, the conditions under which they labored became more closely scrutinized by social workers and other reformers. This concern about workplace conditions for women was very strong during the Progressive Era, as reformers during that period took up the cause of working women like they did the causes of so many others.

Within "Women in America," go to "Our Working Girls. How They Do It" and "Excerpt from Women's Demand for Humane Treatment." (The first document may be located by going to "Contents," then "Authors," then "C," then "Consumers' League of New York," then the title. The second may be selected from the list of related items that appears at the top of the first.)

Use these documents to answer the following questions.

How do these two documents together describe the lives of working women during the early twentieth century? What challenges do women face in the workplace? How do they manage to cope? What hope have they for improvement of their lot?
According to the documents, what can be done to improve working conditions for women? How can non-workers help? What do these documents say about the importance of personal responsibility and accountability?
Who or what is to blame for the conditions working women face? Do these documents call for government or state action to improve the situation? Why or why not?

Despite calls for action to improve the conditions facing women workers, the situation did not immediately improve. In fact, in some industries, such as textile production and clothing construction, conditions were especially serious.

To explore a famous example of the extent of abuses within the clothing industry, explore the following images (and accompanying commentaries) within the American Journey Online: within "World War I and the Jazz Age," go to "Victims of the Triangle Fire" (one way to locate this image is to go to "Contents," then "Images," then "V," then click on the title); within "The Immigrant Experience," go to "Triangle Shirtwaist Fire" (you may locate this image by going to "Contents," then "Years," then "1911," then click on the title).

Use these sources to answer the following questions.

How does the event depicted in these photographs illustrate the need for reform? Which specific reforms are in order? Who or what must initiate these reforms in order for them to be successful? Permanent? Meaningful?
How do these sources taken together demonstrate the flaws that existed in the labor system of the early twentieth century? What do they tell historians today about how reformers sought to improve conditions? About what it really took to spur society into action?

Activity 7
While unions such as the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor employed conventional methods to improve conditions for workers, a new union, the Industrial Workers of the World (or Wobblies) took more extreme action.

The history of the Wobblies is an interesting one that still fascinates historians today. It represents the far-left faction of the labor movement in America and illustrates how and why some workers were willing to consider Socialism as a solution to the problems of working people. (For a discussion of the Wobblies within the context of far-left reform see the Key Topic "Dissenters from the Left" in the module "World War I and the Jazz Age.")

Within that module, go to:

"Preamble of the Industrial Workers of the World" (you may locate this source by going to "Contents," then "Regions," then "Midwest," then scroll down to the title)
"Class Struggle within the Working Class" (one way to locate this source is to go to "Contents," then "Authors," then "W," then "Walling, William English," then click on the title)
"The Lawrence Textile Strike" (this image may be located by going to "Contents," then "Images," then "L," then click on the title)
"The Paterson Silk Strike" (you may select this image from the list of related items that appears at the top of the preceding image).

Use the sources to answer the following questions.

How do the first two sources view the homogeneity of American labor? Does the country have one labor system, or two? How have employers, according to the documents, pitted the two against each other? With what results?
What sorts of reforms do the first two documents collectively call for with regard to the labor problem? Who can solve labor's ills? How?
Compare the two photographs from IWW-led strikes. Note mood, content, perspective, etc. Do these photos seem to be consistent with the goals of the IWW as laid out in the two documents? Explain.

Within the same module, go now to "The Mainspring of Action." (One way to locate this document is to go to "Index," then "I," then "Industrial Workers of the World," then click on the title.)

Use this document to answer the following questions.

How does this document add another dimension to the Wobblies' campaign on behalf of workers' rights? Is the episode related in this document consistent with the philosophy articulated above?
Despite the interest they generated at the time (and as recounted in this last document), the Wobblies left few lasting successes. Why do you suppose that was the case? What does this fact say about the overall character of American society during the early twentieth century?

Activity 8
The early twentieth century witnessed the emergence of two competing strategies for improving the lot of African Americans.

One strategy was advanced by Booker T. Washington, the other by W. E. B. Du Bois. "The African-American Experience" within the American Journey Online contains sources describing both. Exploring them provides users with an introduction to civil rights ideology and a look at the different ways African Americans related to white society.

Within that module go to "Excerpt from Up from Slavery: 2," "Excerpt from The Souls of Black Folk: 1," and "The Immediate Program of the American Negro." (These documents may be located by going to "Contents," then "Key Topics," then "African-American Intellectuals and Leaders," then "The 1890s: Debate and Division among Black Intellectuals," then the links "Atlanta compromise speech," "The Souls of Black Folk," and "National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.")

Use the documents to answer the following questions.

Outline Booker T. Washington's program as related in the first document. On whom does its success depend? How is this program limited in conception? To which segments of society would it most appeal?
What demands does W. E. B. Du Bois spell out in the second document? How does he claim that African Americans can achieve their demands? What strategies need they adopt? Who must they work with?
How does Du Bois compare his program for African-American uplift with the program of Booker T. Washington? Are there any similarities between the two programs, or only differences?
How does the third document move beyond Du Bois's thinking in The Souls of Black Folk? How is it more militant than Washington's? How important is appealing to white society to Du Bois, if at all?
How can historians use the debate between Washington and Du Bois to explore the ways that African Americans conceived of their struggle for equality during the early twentieth century? How do these differences call into question stereotypes about a monolithic African-American mindset?

Activity 9
In addition to implementing some very important legislation to address the need of various groups in society, Progressive reformers also pushed for constitutional amendments where appropriate.

In fact, the brief Progressive Era witnessed the ratification of three amendments, those authorizing a federal income tax, calling for the direct election of U.S. senators, and instituting nationwide Prohibition. Exploring these amendments provides additional insight into the extensive nature of Progressive reform. It also makes clear that some societal problems were considered so serious that they required alteration of the Constitution to solve them.

Within the module "The Constitution and Supreme Court," go to "The Sixteenth Amendment," "The Seventeenth Amendment," and "The Eighteenth Amendment." (These documents may be located by going to the Key Topic "The Constitution of the United States of America" and scroll down to each individual amendment.)

Use the documents to answer the following questions.

How is each of these amendments consistent with the thrust of Progressive reform? What is "reformist" about them? What societal ills do they solve?
How do these amendments hark back to earlier reform campaigns, especially the Populist program covered in Activity 9 of the previous unit? Be specific in your comparisons here.
Explain the philosophy behind each of these amendments. What values do they champion? From what assumptions do they stem? How do they reveal a coherent philosophy on government, and precisely what is that philosophy?
Which of these three amendments do you think was considered most radical at the time? Why? Which do you believe had the greatest impact once implemented? Why? Which had had the greatest long-term effect?
No period in American history has seen a greater flurry to amend the Constitution than the Progressive Era. Given what you know about the ideas behind Progressivism, speculate on why that was the case. What did the resort to constitutional amendments say about the way Progressives viewed government? About the way they viewed the problems facing the nation?

Activity 0
The campaign for women's suffrage continued throughout the Progressive Era, as the women's movement adopted a united approach to the issue. A milestone in the suffrage campaign was the formation of the National American Woman Suffrage Association, which spearheaded the campaign from the late nineteenth century on.

Although the successful culmination of this campaign, the Nineteenth Amendment, occurred after the Progressive Era had given way to the years of U.S. involvement in World War I, historians generally consider the suffrage campaign within the context of Progressivism. (A good overview of the suffrage campaign may be found under the Key Topic "A United Women's Movement and the Right to Vote" within "Women in America.")

Within that module, go to "Winning Policy (1916)," "Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution," and "The Tragedy of Woman's Emancipation." (You may locate these documents by going to "Contents," then "Documents," then the first letter of each title, then the individual titles.)

Use the documents to answer the following questions.

What are the elements of Carrie Chapman Catt's "Winning Policy"? What do they reveal about the way the suffrage campaign would be waged after 1916? About the National American Woman Suffrage Association's understanding of the realities of politics?
How does the "Winning Policy" reflect the maturation of the campaign for suffrage? How does it reflect the limitations of the movement? Refer to the document when answering these questions.
The language of the Nineteenth Amendment, contained in the second document, is remarkably simple. Yet, its principle was revolutionary. Explain why that was the case.
Why does Emma Goldman in the third document suggest that women's suffrage would be "a superficial equalization" of men and women? What does she mean when she asserts that a woman must now work about "emancipating herself from emancipation"? Why does she feel suffrage a wasted opportunity for women?
What does Goldman' think of the argument that by voting, women would improve politics. Why? Is the idea that women would clean up politics part of Catt's reasoning in the first document? What would those who supported it have maintained about the differences between men and women?