American Journey - Chapter 14

Table of Contents

14. Cold War Era

Beginning the Journey
The bulk of the information on the Cold War era may be found in the module "The Cold War." That module contains many sources on both U.S. foreign policy and on domestic affairs. Scanning the module's "Key Topics" will provide users with a clear indication of how the module has broken down the era of the Cold War. It will also highlight some of the important topics and developments during the era.

"The Cold War" module is especially rich in official U.S. government documents on foreign policy topics that give users a good sense of what U.S. policymakers saw as the important issues at the time and how they rationalized and justified their decisions. It also contains a good collection of documents that originated in the Soviet government. These documents were declassified and opened to researchers only after the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s, and they provide users with an invaluable look into the Soviet side of the Cold War era.

Other modules within the American Journey Online may also be tapped for information on the Cold War era. "Civil Rights," "The Constitution and Supreme Court," "Women in America," and "The Vietnam Era" all provide users with valuable materials and may most profitably be explored by Key Topic, Year, or Region.

Activity 1
One of the most interesting questions for historians of U.S. foreign relations has been how the wartime Soviet-American alliance broke down into the tensions of the Cold War. Mutual suspicion and mistrust emerged between the Soviet Union and the United States almost as soon as victory had been achieved.

Exploring the ways that American and Soviet officials assessed each other's foreign policy aims can provide important insights into how the two future superpowers moved toward the Cold War relationship that would last for more than five decades.

Within "The Cold War," go to "The Long Telegram" and "The Novikov Telegram, Washington, September 27, 1946." (The first document may be located by going to "Contents," then "Years," then "1946," then click on the title. The second may be selected from the list of related items that appears at the top of the first.)

Use the documents to answer the following questions.

  1. How does George Kennan assess the role that Communist ideology plays in shaping Soviet foreign policy? Is communism a natural ideological system, or is it alien? Refer to the document when answering these questions.
  2. What does Kennan see as Soviet goals in the postwar period? How do these goals threaten American society and security?
  3. What policy recommendations does Kennan make to combat Soviet expansionist goals?
  4. What aims does Nikolai Novikov in the second document attribute to the United States? What guides American policy? How is the United States different in the post-World War II period than it was before the war?
  5. What do these sources together suggest about the mutual suspicions that developed between the United States and the Soviet Union? Do the claims in these documents seem overblown or exaggerated? Does the language of these documents seem sensational or provocative? Explain your answer with reference to the sources.

Activity 2
The idea of containment shaped American foreign policy during the first few years of the post-World War II period. President Harry S. Truman was especially concerned about alleged Soviet designs on territory in the Mediterranean area and in Western Europe.

Truman and other American foreign policymakers knew that it would be impossible for the United States to effect a wide enough military policy to protect those areas--that is, they knew sending American troops there was not an option. So the administration turned instead to economic measures to forestall the spread of communism into areas considered important to U.S. security.

Two early components of American policy in this regard were the Truman Doctrine, which covered Greece and Turkey in the Mediterranean, and the Marshall Plan (or European Recovery Program), which dealt with Western Europe. Both initiatives demonstrated the administration's determination to resist the possible spread of communism. They also constituted a vast expansion in the scope of U.S. foreign policy.

Within "The Cold War," go to "The Truman Doctrine" and "Speech at Harvard University, June 5, 1947." (Both of these documents may be located by going to "Contents," then "Regions," then "Western Europe," then scroll down to each title.)

Use the documents to answer the following questions.

  1. What assumptions do both of the documents make about how developments in other parts of the world influence or affect the United States? Do these assumptions seem reasonable? Why or why not?
  2. What strategies do these documents propose that the United States undertake to solve the problems in Greece and Turkey and Western Europe? Why must the United States take these actions and not some other nation or the United Nations? What does the fact that the United States is the only nation in a position to act say about its standing vis-à-vis the other nations of the world?
  3. How does the idea of an ideological struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union come out in these documents? How is that struggle portrayed--as something casual or as a matter of life and death? Make reference to the documents in answering these questions.

Not surprisingly, the Soviet Union saw something sinister behind the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan. Soviet officials sounded off on a number of occasions about these U.S. initiatives, revealing in the process the ideological mindset that motivated their own policies and colored their worldview.

To explore some of the Soviet reaction to these initiatives, within "The Cold War" go to "Excerpt from Aiding or Undermining the Reconstruction of Europe?" and "Excerpt from A Soviet Criticism of the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan." (These documents may be selected from the list of related items that appears at the top of the second document above.)

Use the documents to answer the following questions.

  1. On what grounds do these documents criticize the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan? Do these criticisms seem justified? Why or why not?
  2. Taking all of these documents together, what do they lay out as the main points of contention between the United States and the Soviet Union? Why are these issues so important? How do they compare to the key questions discussed in Activity 9 of the "World War II" unit? Given the sentiments expressed in these documents, does it seem that there was a chance for Soviet-American cooperation during this period? Why or why not?

Activity 3
The Cold War of words and rhetoric became a hot war of military confrontation in June 1950 when war broke out in Korea.

Divided temporarily after the war at the 38th parallel, Korea was a highly contested area for both the Soviet Union, which held sway in the northern portion of the country, and the United States, which was predominant in the south. (An extended discussion of the war may be found under the Key Topic "The Korean War" in the module "The Cold War.")

The leaders of both halves of Korea each hoped to lead a reunified nation. On 25 June it seemed that the north was leading the charge for reunification when its troops crossed the dividing line and invaded the south.

The Truman administration saw the North Korean attack as inspired by the Soviet Union and was determined to hold the line against Soviet expansion. (Remember that the idea of containment guided American foreign policy at the time.)

Within the above module, go to "Korean War Begins" (be sure to play the video), "Memorandum of Conversation by Ambassador at Large, June 26, 1950," "The Korean Decision," and "U.S. Courses of Action in Korea." (The first source may be found by going to "Contents," then "Multimedia," then click on the title. The others may be selected from the list of related items that appears at the top of the first.)

Use the sources to answer the following questions.

  1. How does the newsreel clip portray the military action in Korea? What costs does that action seem to have? Who seems to be paying the biggest price?
  2. What do the documents suggest about the way that policymakers in the Truman administration made decisions on Korea? What about their decision to intervene seems most important? Why?
  3. Assess the options for U.S. action laid out in the last document. What were the risks of each option? Why did the administration take the course it did?

As with the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan, the American decision to fight in Korea generated a vocal reaction from Soviet officials. And again, they were consistent in their condemnation of U.S. policy.

Within the same module, go now to "Editorial in Pravda Regarding President Truman's Speech, December 19, 1950" and "Excerpt from Fiendish Fanatics." (These documents may be located by the same procedure used to locate the documents above.) Use the documents to answer the following questions.

  1. How do these two documents depict the U.S. intervention? What about it is most galling or unacceptable, in the eyes of the documents' authors? Do the documents seem to portray U.S. actions fairly or accurately? Be specific and make reference to the documents.
  2. How do these documents, and the Korean War itself, reveal the level of Cold War tensions by 1950? What seem to be the most important issues? The key disputes? Does a chance for reconciliation and cooperation seem possible? Why or why not? Be sure to use specifics from the documents when answering these questions.

Activity 4
Although the Cold War was at its heart an international conflict, it did have a domestic side that affected the U.S. home front. The Truman administration itself was the first to bring the Cold War home, instituting several policy initiatives in 1947 to identify and sanction Communists found within American society.

Despite the administration's efforts in this area, however, foreign policy developments such as the Communist victory in China in 1949 and the outbreak of the Korean War in mid-1950 called into question its anti-Communist commitment. As a result, the Republican party was able to seize upon the issue of Communists in government as a means of discrediting the Democrats in the mid-term elections that year. (To explore the domestic side of the Cold War in depth, go to the Key Topic "Anticommunist Hysteria" within the module "The Cold War.")

Within that module, go to "Versions of the Wheeling Speech" and "Democratic Rebuttal, July 20, 1950." (Both of these sources may be located by going to "Index," then "M," then "McCarthyism," then click on each title.)

Use the documents to answer the following questions.

  1. What claims does Senator McCarthy make in the first document? What evidence does he provide to back up these claims? Do McCarthy's claims seem motivated by a true fear of communism? Do they seem to stem from partisan politics? Do you find McCarthy's charges believable? Why or why not?
  2. How does Senator Tydings respond to McCarthy's charges in the second document? What about McCarthy's charges seems to trouble Tydings the most? Why?

McCarthy's anti-Communist campaign lasted for more than four years. Yet it yielded no real successes in identifying or removing Communists in government. Instead, it ruined the lives of many people falsely accused.

The beginning of the end for McCarthy came in the spring of 1954, when he launched an investigation into alleged Communist influence in the U.S. Army. The hearings into this matter were televised nationally and resulted in a public outcry about McCarthy's behavior. The Senate censured him in 1954; he died of alcoholism three years later.

"The Cold War" contains several sources relevant to the Army-McCarthy hearings and the Senate decision for censure. Go now to: "McCarthy at Map" (play the audio) and "Hearings, June 9, 1954." (These sources may be located by going to "Contents," then "Regions," then "United States," then scroll down to and click on each title.)

Use the sources to answer the following questions.

  1. What claims does McCarthy make in the audio clip? Does he provide evidence to back them up? What does the clip suggest about McCarthy's method of delivery? How might his methods have affected his credibility with the public?
  2. How does the excerpt from the hearings complement the audio clip? What are the issues at the heart of the exchange? Do they have anything to do with McCarthy's supposed crusade into Communists in government? Why do you suppose the public would have been shocked and disgusted at McCarthy's actions in these hearings?
  3. Taking all of these sources together, what do they tell you about the sweep of McCarthy's claims? About why his crusade, which never identified even one Communist in government, lasted so long? How did his campaign reflect domestic frustrations with the way the foreign side of the Cold War was going?

Activity 5
In addition to seeking out and removing Communists from the U.S. government, the post-World War II Red Scare also targeted members of the entertainment industry. Movie stars, screenwriters, playwrights, and others stood accused of membership in Communist or Communist-front organizations, support for Communist causes, or association with known or suspected Communists.

Because many of these entertainment personalities were well known, their appearances at hearings often generated a great deal of publicity. Exploring the role of communism in the entertainment field may be accomplished through work in two different modules.

Within "The Cold War," go to "Reds Beaten in Hollywood," "Hollywood Ten," and Testimony at HUAC Hearings, June 12, 1956." (The first document may be located by going to "Contents," then "Authors," then "R," then "Reagan, Ronald," then click on the title. The other two sources may be selected from the list of related items that appears at the top of the first.)

Within "Women in America," go to "Letter from Lillian Hellman to HUAC (1952)." (This document may be located by going to "Contents," then "Documents," then "L," then scroll down and click on the title.)

Use the sources to answer the following questions.

  1. How does Ronald Reagan in the first document claim to have rid the entertainment industry of Communists and Communist influence? How insidious does he claim that this influence could have been if he and others hadn't resisted? What tactics did the Communists employ in their campaign to control Hollywood?
  2. How do the remaining sources contrast the approach taken by Reagan to the Communist threat to Hollywood and the entertainment industry in general? Make specific comparisons using examples from the documents.
  3. How does Paul Robeson in the third source link communism with racial questions? Why does he personally seem to support the Communist ideology? Why does he suggest that other African Americans would as well? Does his reasoning make sense here?
  4. To what does Lillian Hellman object in the last document? How does her philosophy differ from Ronald Reagan's as expressed in the first document? Explain your answer with specific reference to the documents.
  5. How do these sources taken together give you a sense of the pervasive nature of the Red Scare? How do they give you a sense of what people went through during the period? What do they tell you about the fear and suspicion many people experienced? What do they suggest as the costs of the Red Scare for the nation? For individuals?

Activity 6
In addition to spawning the excesses of McCarthyism, the postwar fear of communism also affected domestic society in other ways. Fear of a Soviet nuclear attack on the United States led to a civil defense culture that forced Americans to prepare themselves for the unknown.

Within "The Cold War," locate the following:

  • "Duck and Cover"
  • "A Sheltered Existence"
  • "Atomic Bomb Drill Conducted in New York City."

The first two sources may be located by going to "Index," then "C," then "Civil defense," then select each individual title. The third source may be located by going to "Contents," then "Multimedia," then select the title.

Use the sources to answer the following questions.

  1. What does the first image suggest about the way the American public was informed about the nuclear threat? Do the precautions being taken by the schoolchildren in the photo seem sufficient to protect them from an atomic attack? What purpose would such drills have served if they wouldn't actually save people's lives?
  2. How does the second image depict life during and after an atomic attack? Does the life portrayed here seem desirable? What considerations do you think pushed people toward the decision to construct their own bomb shelters? Most Americans chose not to do so, even though they could have. Why do you think that was the case?
  3. What does the video clip add to the still images? How does it enhance your understanding of how Americans prepared for an atomic attack?

American efforts to prepare for the unknown received a sharp setback in the autumn of 1957 when the Soviet Union sent Sputnik, the world's first man-made satellite, into orbit. If the Soviets could develop Sputnik, they could also seemingly strike American targets with nuclear missiles at will.

Despite the dangers inherent in the launching of Sputnik, the Eisenhower administration tried to remain upbeat. Exploring what the president had to say on the subject reveals the efforts his administration made to keep the American people from being discontented with the progress of the nation's technology programs.

Within "The Cold War," go now to the video clip "Eisenhower Publicly Responds to Sputnik Launch." (One way to locate this source is to search under the term "Sputnik" and select the fifth item in the list the search returns.)

Use this source, in conjunction with those above, to answer the following questions.

  1. How does Eisenhower portray the danger from the Soviet Sputniks? Does he seem to take them seriously enough? Does he seem to sugarcoat the threat? How does he suggest Americans protect themselves from this new danger?
  2. Collectively, what impressions do these sources give you of the environment in which Americans lived during the 1950s? What role do you think nuclear concerns played in people's everyday lives? What priority do you believe the government placed on preparing for nuclear treats?

Activity 7
Cold War tensions were manifested in more than just diplomatic confrontation and foreign policy. Differences between the Soviet Union and the United States were also revealed in cultural ways, most profoundly in a series of cultural exhibitions during the late 1950s. Undertaken as part of an effort at better mutual understanding, these exhibits often revealed the stark differences between Soviet and American societies and generated no small amount of official ill-will. (These exhibits are discussed under the Key Topic "A Thaw in the Cold War" within the module "The Cold War.")

One of the most well known examples of a cultural exchange that degenerated into a game of rhetorical assaults and conflict was the American National Exhibit in Moscow in the summer of 1959. It was there that Vice President Richard M. Nixon and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev engaged in their famous "kitchen debate." Exploring this episode sheds light on the different levels on which the Cold War was fought, as well as the outward differences between American and Soviet society.

Within the above module, go to "Nixon-Khrushchev Kitchen Debate, 1959," "Six Weeks at Sokolniki: Soviet Responses to the American National Exhibition," and "U.S.-Soviet Exhibits a Successful Exchange." (These documents may be located by going to the Key Topic above, scrolling down to "East-West Cultural Ties," and clicking on the links "'Kitchen Debate,'" "increasingly agitated amid the display of superior American consumer goods," and "a huge propaganda success for the West.")

Use the sources to answer the following questions.

  1. What sorts of experiences does Vice President Nixon in the first document recall having had even before he reached the grounds of the American National Exhibition? How did they prepare him for his exchange with Premier Khrushchev? What were the substantive points of that debate? Who made the better argument(s)? Support your answer with specifics from the document.
  2. How does the second document complement the reaction of Premier Khrushchev to the American National Exhibition related in the first? What techniques did the regime employ to dismiss or discredit the exhibition? What did these techniques reveal about the mindset of the regime's leaders? About their hold over the public?
  3. At its heart, what was the kitchen debate all about? What did the washing machines, furniture, clothing, and other consumer goods displayed in Sokolniki Park say about U.S. society? How was that society different from Soviet society? And why were Soviet officials reluctant to let the public see the truth about American society?
  4. How does the third document describe the Soviet and American exhibitions? What measurements does it use to judge their success? Do these measurements seem appropriate? Why or why not? Which nation, the United States or the Soviet Union, got the better end of the exchange of exhibits? Why?
  5. Considering these sources altogether, what do they say about the non-diplomatic aspects of the Cold War? How was that conflict a war of words, impressions, and images? How was it a war for the hearts and minds of people? What weapons did each side--the Soviet Union and the United States--employ? And which side's tactics proved more effective?

Activity 8
The post-World War II period was a tumultuous one for American women. Many returned to their prewar roles as wives and mothers, but others struck out to make their marks in larger society. Often, or perhaps more often than not, these women met with resistance and roadblocks. American society, it seemed, was not yet ready to accept women in all facets of life. This was especially true of the areas of government and public service.

To explore the role of women in government during the 1950s, within "Women in America go to "Women's Role in the Machinery of Government (1957)." (One way to locate this document is to go to "Contents," then "Authors," then "S," then "Springer, Adele I.," then click on the title.)

Use the document to answer the following questions.

  1. What claims does Adele Springer make in the document about the position of women at all levels of the U.S. government? What evidence does she marshal to support those claims?
  2. What evidence does Springer cite to condemn the lack of real participation by women in government? Are these the proper kinds of evidence to support the point(s) she's trying to make? Why or why not?
  3. Springer focuses a lot of her attention on the legal field. Why do you suppose that is the case? What special role does she seem to believe that law can have in securing a greater role in government for women?
  4. What strategies does Springer propose to increase women's participation in all levels of government throughout the United States? How realistic are these strategies? How likely are they to succeed? What role do already-successful women play in them?
  5. How representative were Springer's remarks likely to have been at time? How compelling or persuasive do you find her arguments? How do they presage the debate over women's rights to come in the next two decades? To what extent do the conditions that Springer describes still exist today?

Activity 9
As the war in Korea had illustrated, the Cold War existed beyond the confines of the Soviet-American relationship. To be sure, the United States saw most if not all disturbances throughout the world as Soviet motivated during the late 1940s and 1950s. But these disturbances often occurred in parts of the world not directly controlled by Moscow.

One of the most prolonged and tragic conflicts of the Cold War period took place in Vietnam, which had traditionally been a French colony. Occupied by the Japanese during World War II, Vietnam went back to the French after the war was over, much to the chagrin of its large nationalist movement, led by Ho Chi Minh.

The most active time for U.S. involvement in Vietnam was the 1960s and 1970s, when the U.S. commitment expanded rapidly and radically and then declined. But the origins of U.S. policy with regard to Ho Chi Minh and Vietnamese independence came during the 1950s. Exploring the early U.S. opposition to Ho provides some important background for understanding later U.S. policy.

Within "The Vietnam Era," go to:

  • "Ho Chi Minh's True Colors"
  • "Presidential Press Conference, April 7, 1954"
  • "Final Declaration of Geneva Conference, July 21, 1954"
  • "Map of Vietnam with Division at Seventeenth Parallel"
  • "U.S. Response to the Geneva Accords"
  • "Response to Geneva Accords, July 22, 1954"
  • "Statement on Geneva Accords, July 15, 1954."

The first document may be located by going to "Contents," then "Authors," then "A," then "Acheson, Dean," then click on the title. The second may be located by going to "Contents," then "Regions," then "Dien Bien Phu," then click on the title. The remaining sources may be located by going to "Index," then "G," then "Geneva," then select each title individually.

Use the sources to answer the following questions.

  1. How does Secretary of State Dean Acheson portray Ho Chi Minh in the first document? What does Ho's recognition by the Soviet Union mean for U.S. policy? How is this brief statement the cornerstone of the subsequent U.S. commitment to the defeat of Ho?
  2. In what terms does Dwight Eisenhower paint the situation in Vietnam in the second document? According to the president, what is at stake? Is Vietnam more important for itself or for what it symbolizes? Why is it unthinkable for Eisenhower that the Communists win in Vietnam?
  3. How do the Geneva Accords and the map lay out the temporary solution effected in the wake of the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu? Who wins and who loses, in this scenario? Do you see any way that the accords reached at Geneva could actually have succeeded? Why or why not?
  4. How do the last three documents depict the reactions of the United States, Ho Chi Minh's nationalists, and the U.S.-backed government in South Vietnam to the Geneva Accords? Make reference to the accords in order to explain why each of these three sides took the position it did.
  5. After studying these documents, what conclusions can you draw about the early U.S. commitment to a non-Communist Vietnam? Why was that commitment made? Why was it so vigorously pursued? Why was it always about much more than simply Vietnam itself?

Activity 0
The mid-1950s witnessed the demise of the separate but equal system given sanction in the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision. In 1954 the NAACP waged a successful campaign to desegregate public schools, winning Supreme Court condemnation of public segregation.

To explore the events surrounding the Supreme Court's decision, within "The Constitution and the Supreme Court," go to "Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas" and "The Southern Declaration on Integration." (The first document may be located by going to "Contents," then "Years," then "1954," then click on the title. The second may be located by doing the same thing but going to "1956.")

Use the documents to answer the following questions.

  1. What arguments does the first document make for overturning the concept of separate but equal? In the eyes of the court, what makes separate facilities inherently unequal? How logical is the court's reasoning in this decision?
  2. How does the decision in the second Brown case take away from the positive aspects of the first? How does it constitute an abdication of federal responsibility? A sop to southern segregationists?
  3. What are the issues at the heart of the second document? How does this document view the division of power between the federal and state governments? How does it reveal the possibility of different interpretations of the Constitution?

As might have been expected under the terms of the second Brown decision, desegregation proceeded very slowly. When left to their own schedules, southern school boards and public officials dragged their feet and threw numerous roadblocks into the path of desegregated schools.

The most famous confrontation over school desegregation came in Little Rock, Arkansas, in 1957. Local and state officials refused to comply with an order for desegregation, and in the end President Dwight Eisenhower was forced to intervene.

To explore the Little Rock episode, within "Civil Rights" go to "On the Integration of Central High School in Little Rock" and the multimedia clip "Integration of Central High School, Little Rock." (The first source may be located by going to "Contents," then "Regions," then "South and Southwest," then click on the title. The second source may be selected from the list of related items that appears at the top of the preceding document.)

Use these sources to answer the following questions.

  1. How does President Eisenhower justify his intervention in Little Rock? What authorization to act does he cite? How does he see the situation there as having implications for the entire nation? For American principles of government?
  2. How does the video clip make clear the passions inspired by the Little Rock situation? What did the incident reveal about the issues at stake, not only about the idea of integrated schools but also about the power of the federal government to dictate to the states?