CRITICAL THINKING LESSON FOR CHAPTER 16B:
The Media, the Internet, and Urban Legends

Have you ever heard the following claim? "On average, men think about sex every seven seconds." You may have heard a variation, such as, "men think about sex every fifteen seconds," or, "men think about sex every three minutes." But the main conclusion--that men think frequently about sex--is the same in all of them. The claim often is believed simply because it sounds so plausible: it agrees with most people's stereotype of male sexuality. As you learned in Chapter 16, a stereotype is a "widely held [belief] that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group" (p. 649). As stated there, gender stereotypes are among the most common. The male stereotype in the United States includes the belief that men are hypersexual and that they generally have only "one thing on their minds." If a claim is made that is consistent with this stereotype, people typically do not question it.

But think carefully about the claim. What would be appropriate evidence for it? Could we simply ask males to recall how often they think about sex? Laumann and his colleagues (1994) tried this and found that 54% of men think about sex at least once each day, 43% at least a few times each month (but not every day), and 4% less than once a month (Frequently Asked Sexuality Questions, 2001). But, there are a number of reasons to question the validity of survey results such as these (see Critical Thinking Lesson 10B).

A more direct approach would be to ask a large group of males to record their sexual thoughts each time they have one, perhaps by pressing a button hooked up to an automatic recording device. Is there a possible problem with this method? It seems likely that, because the men are carrying around a device that is supposed to measure their sexual thoughts, the device will serve as a constant reminder of sex, thereby causing them to have more frequent sexual thoughts. In general, it's hard to avoid the conclusion that there may be no good way to measure how often a person thinks about sex.

Then where did the claim, "men think about sex every seven seconds," come from? Mikkelson (2002) reported that the study of male sexuality performed by Alfred Kinsey and his colleagues is sometimes cited (Kinsey, Pomeroy, & Martin, 1948). But, in actuality, that study never reported such a statistic. In fact, it seems that the claim is only a popular myth (a false claim that is commonly believed) that has been repeated so often that many people now accept it as common knowledge. In this lesson, you will learn about sources of popular myths and why such myths can endure for so long.

Popular Myths

In Critical Thinking Lesson 16A, you learned about social-impact theory, which states that the amount of influence others have on our beliefs and behaviors depends on (a) their number, (b) their status, and (c) their proximity. Social-impact theory explains how popular myths can spread rapidly. According to Barry Markovsky, a sociologist at the University of Iowa:

If you're unsure whether to believe what you hear about the Bermuda Triangle, a haunted house, a faith healer, or a weeping religious icon, all it takes to tip you one way or the other is knowing what someone else believes -- especially if they're socially close to you or have high status. You'll willingly adopt their beliefs as your own. (quoted in Kenyon, 2001)

In general, popular myths are spread by information received from two major sources: the media (television, radio, newspapers, magazines) and interpersonal communications (conversations, e-mails, FAX's, etc.). A major problem with this information, however, is that those passing it on often underemphasize some details and overemphasize others. Gilovich (1991) referred to this process as "sharpening and leveling." Whenever we tell a story, we sharpen by emphasizing details that we think will hold the attention of others, that will better illustrate the point we are trying to make, or that make the story more understandable. We level by de-emphasizing details that we think will bore or confuse others, or that contradict the point we are trying to make. Gilovich provided an example that:

involves the problem of sexuality in the era of AIDS. I have heard the following story at least four times. Each time the person telling the story introduced it as something that happened to a "friend of mine," "a friend of my brother," or a "guy at work." Many people I know have also heard it a similar number of times with a different cast of characters.... The story is as follows:

My friend (my brother's friend, this guy, etc.) began flirting with a particularly attractive woman at a bar in the city (on a Caribbean vacation). One thing led to another and they ended up sleeping together. The next morning when he woke up, the woman was gone. He saw a note on the bed (a message on the bathroom mirror): "Welcome to the world of AIDS."

It is possible that such a nightmare did in fact happen to someone, somewhere, at some time.... It is certainly the case, however, that it did not happen as many times, to as many people. (p. 96)

If the story is derived from an actual event, its present forms are the product of much sharpening, leveling, and changing of details. Such a story is referred to as an urban legend, which is an allegedly true story that spreads through interpersonal communication and cannot be traced to an original source. According to Emery (2000a), urban legends:

typically comprise outlandish, humiliating, humorous, terrifying, or supernatural events--events which, in the telling, always happened to someone else. In lieu of proof, the teller of an urban legend relies on good storytelling and the citing of supposedly trustworthy sources (e.g., "I heard this from a friend of a friend") to boost its credibility. Sometimes, but not always, there's an implied moral message in the story (e.g., "Be careful, or the same thing could happen to you!").... Because they end up being repeated by many different people in many different places, the stories tend to change over time. Hence, no two versions of an urban legend are ever exactly alike; there can be as many variants as there are tellers of the tale.

Urban legends spread rapidly because they deal with issues that tend to grab people's attention. For example, urban legends that involve issues that scare many people--such as contaminated food or drinks (have you ever heard the "mouse-in-a-soda-bottle" story)--will get repeated often and spread rapidly. According to Harris (2001):

When told correctly, a good urban legend will have you on the edge of your seat. It's human nature to want to spread this feeling to others, and be the one who's got everyone waiting to hear how the story turns out. Even if you hear it as a made-up joke, you might be tempted to personalize the tale by claiming it happened to a friend. Basically, people love to tell a good story. But why does an audience take this at face value, instead of recognizing it is a tall tale or unsubstantiated rumor? In most cases, it has to do with how the story is told. If a friend (let's call her Jane) tells you an urban legend, chances are she will say it happened to a friend of somebody she knows. You trust Jane to tell you the truth, and you know she trusts the person who told her the story. It seems pretty close to second-hand information, so you treat it as such. Why would Jane lie?

The media also can help make an urban legend seem like a true story. For example, television dramas that are known for basing their story lines on actual events have sometimes made use of urban legends. Since one television show can reach millions of people, an urban legend can spread rapidly across a nation, and even around the world, in a matter of days.

The Internet and e-mail also have created a situation in which urban legends can spread much faster and to a greater number of people than in the past. Because it now is so easy to quickly reach a massive number of people, it probably is not an exaggeration to say that we are living in a "Golden Age" of urban legends and popular myths. Since a large number of popular myths involve psychological issues, this is a very important problem for you to understand as you learn about the science of psychology.

Question 16B-1
The textbook that you are reading for this course is known as a "secondary source." With respect to scientific reasearch, a secondary source is an article, book, or other written work that summarizes research results and the interpretations of these results. Based on what you have learned in this lesson, what is the major disadvantage to reading about research in secondary sources?
Suggested Answer

Question 16B-2
You may, at some point, have received an e-mail similar to the following:

Subject: Fwd: [Fwd: [Fwd: Travelers BEWARE!!!!!!]]

Dear Friends,

I wish to warn you about a new crime ring that is targeting business travelers. This ring is well organized, well funded, has very skilled personnel, and is currently in most major cities and recently very active in New Orleans.

The crime begins when a business traveler goes to a lounge for a drink at the end of the work day. A person in the bar walks up as they sit alone and offers to buy them a drink. The last thing the traveler remembers until they wake up in a hotel room bath tub, their body submerged to their neck in ice, is sipping that drink. There is a note taped to the wall instructing them not to move and to call 911. A phone is on a small table next to the bathtub for them to call.

The business traveler calls 911 who have become quite familiar with this crime.The business traveler is instructed by the 911 operator to very slowly and carefully reach behind them and feel if there is a tube protruding from their lower back. The business traveler finds the tube and answers, "Yes." The 911 operator tells them to remain still, having already sent paramedics to help. The operator knows that both of the business traveler's kidneys have been harvested.

This is not a scam or out of a science fiction novel, it is real.

It is documented and confirmable.

If you travel or someone close to you travels, please be careful.

What are some of the signs that this story may be an urban legend? How could you determine for certain that it is an urban legend?
Suggested Answer

Question 16B-3
According to Fairness & Accuracy In Reporting (2003), an editorial was published in U.S. News & World Report on June 16, 2003. Mort Zuckerman, an editor for the magazine, described some anecdotes in support of the claim that people will sue anyone over "just about anything":

Zuckerman claimed: "A woman throws a soft drink at her boyfriend at a restaurant, then slips on the floor she wet and breaks her tailbone. She sues. Bingo -- a jury says the restaurant owes her $100,000! A woman tries to sneak through a restroom window at a nightclub to avoid paying the $3.50 cover charge. She falls, knocks out two front teeth, and sues. A jury awards her $12,000 for dental expenses."

In order to see if one or both of these anecdotes are urban legends, use the Snopes.com web site (http://www.snopes.com), which is a web site dedicated to describing urban legends, "misinformation, old wives' tales, strange news stories, rumors, celebrity gossip, and similar items."
Suggested Answer

Bibliography and References

Fairness & Accuracy In Reporting (2003, July 3). U.S. news won't retract fiction presented as fact. Retrieved July 14, 2003, from http://www.fair.org/activism/usnews.html

Emery, D. (2000a). What Exactly Are Urban Legends? Urban Legends and Folklore. Retrieved May 18, 2003, from
http://urbanlegends.about.com/library/weekly/aa082497.htm

Emery, D. (2000b). How to spot an urban legend. Urban Legends and Folklore. Retrieved May 18, 2003, from
http://urbanlegends.about.com/c/ht/00/07/How_Spot_Urban_Legend0962932962.htm

Frequently Asked Sexuality Questions. (2001, June 27). The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction. Retrieved May 18, 2003, from http://kinseyinstitute.org/resources/FAQ.html

Gilovich, T. (1991). How we know what isn't so: The fallibility of human reason in everyday life. New York: Free Press.

Harris, B. (1979). Whatever happened to Little Albert? American Psychologist, 34, 151-160. Retrieved July 30, 2003, from http://www.cmer.org/class/articles/albert.html

Harris, T. (2001). How urban legends work. How Stuff Works.com. Retrieved May 18, 2003, from http://www.howstuffworks.com/urban-legend.htm/

Kenyon, M. G. (2001, June 13). UI professor offers explanation for paranormal beliefs. University of Iowa News Release. Retrieved May 18, 2003, from http://www.uiowa.edu/~ournews/2001/june/0613paranormal.html

Kinsey, A. C. Pomeroy, W. B., & Martin, C. E. (1948). Sexual behavior in the human male. Philadelphia: Saunders.

Laumann, E. O., Gagnon, J. H., Michael, R. T., & Michaels, S. (1994). The social organization of sexuality: Sexual practices in the United States. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

McCammon, S. L., Knox, D., Schacht, C. (1993). Choices in sexuality. Minneapolis/St. Paul: West.

Mikkelson, B. (2002, April 18). Daydream deceiver. Snopes.com. Retrieved May 18, 2003, from http://www.snopes2.com/science/stats/thinksex.htm