THE CRUCIFIX

History

The image of the crucified Jesus first appears, according to archaeological evidence, in Rome in the 5^th century; before this date, Jesus was commonly represented in the form of a lamb. Early Christians avoided pictorial use even of the simple cross, let alone the rendering of Jesus’ crucifixion, due to the ignominy associated with this form of death. The Christian communities of the ancient world, while officially affirming the dual nature of Jesus as both human and divine, concentrated more on his divine attributes than on his earthly career. Thus, the crucifix, as the preeminent symbol of Jesus’ suffering and death, would not enjoy widespread popularity and ritual use until the medieval period.

The art of the early Middle Ages, still heavily influenced by ancient Christian theology, tended to depict Jesus on the cross with open eyes and no trace of suffering, reflecting the theological emphasis on the Resurrection, and hence, Jesus’ immunity to suffering and death. By the 13^th century, with the increasing theological importance of the Incarnation and the humanity of Jesus, the crucifix, now showing Jesus’ body twisted and bleeding on the cross, became established as the altar centerpiece in most churches and cathedrals, and as the favored object of contemplation of the mystics. The medieval Catholic Church, now separated from the Eastern Orthodox Church (1054 B.C.E.), placed suffering at the center of its doctrine of salvation, such that through the imitation of the suffering of Jesus, who is both human and divine, human beings could "crucify" their human nature and become divine, immortal, and perfect—to the degree that humans are able. The crucifix served as a complex symbol of Christ’s sacrifice for humanity, the fullness of his human nature, the depth of tragedy that is overcome by the Resurrection, and as a kind of model for imitation.

The Renaissance painters and sculptors of the 15^th century, in accordance with the prevailing spirit of the era, transform the image of Jesus yet again. As with medieval representation, Christ’s arms are outstretched, his head bowed, his eyes closed, but his body is no longer wracked with pain. Instead, he is modeled on the Greek ideal of taut, sensuous muscularity, displaying serenity and repose rather than agony. The optimism of the Renaissance regarding human nature and the body stands in stark contrast with medieval views. In the imagination of the humanists, Jesus’ figure on the cross represents the earthly perfection of the new Adam, his body made beautiful through measure and proportion.

With the Protestant Reformation of the 16^th century, the crucifix, and, in the case of Calvin, the form of the cross as well, was banned in all newly formed Protestant churches as idolatry and "popishness." While the cross has reappeared in Protestant churches in the last centuries, the crucifix is almost exclusively associated with Catholic Christianity.

The Crucifix is an image of Jesus Christ crucified on the cross, represented in painting, sculpture, metalwork, woodcarving, and other material art forms. While the form of the cross boasts a rich symbolic tradition in the ancient world (i.e., the ankh of Egypt, the swastika of India, and the Tau cross of the Greeks), the crucifix, as distinct from the cross, is unique to Christianity. As presented in the four gospels, the crucifixion of Jesus is the culminating drama of his Passion, the moment that, following his arrest, trial, and scourging, the Redeemer is killed by Pontius Pilate in the form of execution reserved for religious and political agitators and for slaves. The resolution of this tragic scenario is the Resurrection, where, according to the gospels, Jesus, still bearing the marks of crucifixion in his hands and feet, rises from the dead on the third day, thereby conquering death.

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